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Turtle (Qui)

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In the treasure trove of Vietnamese mythology, the sea god is often seen transforming into a sea turtle. This giant aquatic species is rare in our country, particularly the softshell turtle of the Red River (sông Hồng), and it is one of the four animals with supernatural power (dragon, unicorn, turtle, phoenix). Compared to the other three animals, the turtle is the only true animal existing in nature. Moreover, it has a longer lifespan and can live for a long time without food. That is why it is synonymous with escaping the hectic life and eternal longevity.

In the spiritual realm, the turtle is considered the symbolic animal of the union of heaven and earth or Yin and Yang. Its abdomen is so flat that it represents the earth (Yin), and its shell represents the dome of the sky (Yang). It is often regarded by the Vietnamese as a sacred quadruped capable of making prophecies and is sanctified in their spirit. They are one of the peoples living close to the rivers and seas of Southeast Asia and in the south of the Yangzi River. This is why the French researcher Jean Przyluski concluded in his studies that one often sees in their legends heroes or sacred forces (or spirits in the form of fish, turtles, reptiles, turtles, etc.) coming from the waters, helping kings to consolidate their nation or resist invaders.

On the other hand, these sacred animals are not found in the legends of the peoples living on the continent such as China or India. This is why the appearance of the turtle is noted two or three times in Vietnamese legends. For the first time, the turtle is mentioned in the book titled « Extraordinary Stories of Lĩnh Nam » by Trần Thế Pháp, written in Han characters and probably published during the Trần dynasty.

After conquering the Văn Lang kingdom of the Hùng kings, Thục Phán decided to take the title An Dương Vương and decided to build the citadel in the Việt Thường territory. But he did not succeed in completing his project because the citadel kept eroding several times. One day, on the surface of the sea, appeared a golden turtle claiming to be the ambassador Thanh Giang. It was able to speak human language fluently and predict the future.

The king succeeded in building the citadel after the golden turtle suggested a stratagem to kill the monster Bạch Kê Tinh (a white rooster that managed to transform into a human being after a thousand years). This citadel was quite large and was called « the spiral citadel » because of the presence of nine spirals of earth. Before bidding farewell to the king, the Golden Turtle advised the king to govern with wisdom and virtue as this would prolong his reign. Then it gave him a claw which the king used as the trigger of his crossbow and returned to the sea.

Thanks to this magical weapon, the king managed to keep the citadel and resist the invading army of Zhao Tuo (or Triệu Đà). But An Dương Vương was later a victim of Zhao Tuo’s cunning and lost his kingdom by agreeing to let his daughter Mỵ Nương marry Trọng Thủy, the son of his adversary. The Golden Turtle also helped King Lý Thái Tông reclaim his throne after the death of his father, King Lý Thái Tổ.

Upon ascending the throne, Lý Thái Tông soon had to abandon the capital and take refuge in a cave in Tuyên Quang because his younger brothers had revolted to dispute the throne with him. The Golden Turtle appeared in his dream to let him know that it would help him reclaim the throne. After quelling the revolt, the king remembered the turtle’s merit and did not hesitate to grant it the title of « Minh Phúc Đại Vương. » To this day, there still exists a shrine dedicated to this Golden Turtle in the village of Nghiêm Sơn in Tuyên Quang province.

The Golden Turtle was also mentioned during the Ming (or Chinese) invasion at the beginning of the 15th century. A fisherman named Lê Thân once retrieved a sword and gave it to Lê Lợi, the future king of the Later Lê dynasty, during his uprising against the Chinese invaders. After driving out the Ming, King Lê Lợi one day took a dragon boat ride around Tã Vọng lake (known today as the « Lake of the Returned Sword »).

In the middle of the lake, a huge turtle suddenly emerged from the surface of the water. The king found this appearance strange. He ordered his subordinates to slow down the royal boat. The turtle approached him and said in its human voice: « Lord, you must return the sword to me so that I can bring it back to the Dragon King (*). He is the one who gave you this sword to pacify the country. » Just as the king drew his sword, the golden turtle opened its mouth, snatched it with astonishing speed, and immediately disappeared under the water.

The golden turtle is still considered in Vietnamese legends as the praetorian guard of the Dragon King, the father of the Vietnamese people, and it is entrusted with protecting the Vietnamese. From that day on, the Tã Vọng lake became Hồ Hoàn Kiếm lake (or the Lake of the Returned Sword).

In popular beliefs, it is common to find a pair of cranes or phoenixes standing on the shells of turtles arranged on each side of the incense burner in temples and communal houses. It is a pair of animals reflecting the role of the harmony between Yin and Yang. In the Temple of Literature (Văn Miếu) in Hanoi, there are 82 turtle statues carrying the steles of laureates on their shells.

It is a way to immortalize the names of people who have obtained the title tiến sĩ (doctorate degree) as well as those of their villages where they were born, because these continue to be honored through generations and years, and they symbolize the strength they possess since they are men of talent and the source of life for the nation. No king thinks of neglecting the recruitment of these talented men because a gushing source is the strength of a country. A drying-up source weakens it.

We are accustomed to considering the turtle as a sacred quadruped. That is why when someone has the chance to encounter it on the path, it is said that they are lucky. It is called by the name « Cụ (Uncle) » to show respect. We pity its fate through the following saying:

Thương thay cái kiếp con rùa
Lên đình đội hạc, xuống đình đội bia.

We keep lamenting the fate of the turtle
Forced to carry cranes in communal houses and steles elsewhere.

Currently, this giant aquatic species has been classified as critically endangered on the IUCN Red List since 2006 and is known by the scientific name « Rafetus swinhoei. » It is a softshell turtle species living in the Yangtze River (China) or the Red River of Vietnam.

After the death of the returned sword lake turtle, there are currently 4 individuals, one of which is very old and male living in China, the second (a female confirmed through gene analysis) and the third (under recovery) are in Đồng Mô Lake (Ba Vì), and the last lives in nearby Xuân Khanh Lake (Sơn Tây). The Vietnamese organization responsible for species protection holds hope of successful fertilization if the individual recovered at Đồng Mô or Xuân Khanh Lake is a male; otherwise, this species will become extinct in the future.

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TORTUE

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Buddhism under the Dinh Tiên Lê Ly Tran dynasties

Once independence was regained, Buddhism began to find a favorable response in the person of King Đinh Tiên Hoàng. He appointed Ngô Chấn Lưu, a disciple of the monk Văn Phong from the Khai Quốc pagoda (Hanoi), as Tăng Thống (Supreme Head of the Buddhist clergy). He awarded him the title of Khuông Việt Đại Sư (Grand Master, supporter of the Việt country) for his participation in state affairs as an advisor. Coming from the school of the Chinese monk Vô Ngôn Không, Ngô Chấn Lưu was renowned for his deep knowledge of the Dhyana (or Thiền) doctrine. Then the Buddhist momentum continued to strengthen with the great King Lê Đại Hành (or Lê Hoàn). During an expedition to Champa in 985, he succeeded in bringing back to his country an Indian monk (Thiên Trúc) who was staying at the Đồng Dương monastery.

It was under the reign of this king that the monks played an important role in Vietnamese political life because they were the sole holders of knowledge. This was the case of the monk Ngô Chấn Lưu, entrusted by King Lê Đại Hành to receive a Chinese diplomatic delegation from the Song dynasty (Tống triều) led by ambassador Li Jiao (or Lý Giác). Upon returning to China, Li Jiao was accompanied by a piece of lyrical song (or từ in Vietnamese) written by the monk Khuông Việt himself (or Ngô Chấn Lưu). Besides the official documents, this piece, titled in Vietnamese Ngọc Lang Quy (or Vương Lang Quy), thus became the first Vietnamese literary work still considered today as a precious and important document not only in Sino-Vietnamese relations but also in Vietnamese literature. We also do not forget the impromptu verbal exchange in sentences by the poet monk Đỗ Thuận, disguised as a sampan rower with Li Jiao.

Seeing two wild geese playing on the crest of the waves, Li Jiao began to sing:

Ngỗng ngỗng hai con ngỗng
Ngữa mặt nhìn trời xa

Wild geese, see these two wild geese!
They raise their heads and turn toward the horizon!

The monk Lạc Thuận did not hesitate to complete the quatrain with the same rhymes while continuing to row:

Nước biếc phô lông trắng
Chèo hồng sóng xanh khua

Their white feathers spread over the bluish waters
Their pink feet, like oars, cut through the blue waves.

The parallelism of ideas and terms and especially the speed of the monk Lạc Thuận’s improvisation impressed the Chinese ambassador with admiration. The latter did not hesitate to address compliments to King Lê Đại Hành by comparing him to his own king in a poem. According to what was reported in Thiền Uyển Tập Anh (Florilegium of the Thiền Garden), before his passing, Khuông Việt wrote a poem entitled « The Wood and the Fire » (Cây và Lửa) intended to teach dhyana to his eminent disciple, the Zen master Đa Bảo:

Trong cây sẵn có lửa
Có lửa lửa lại sinh
Nếu bảo ấy không lửa
Cọ xát làm sao phát sinh?

The wood contains fire in essence
And this fire sometimes is reborn
Why say it does not reside there,
If the fire bursts forth when one drills the wood.

He used this kê (a kind of Buddhist stanza) to imply that the wood represents the person and the fire, the nature of the Buddha (Phật tính) that the person always has in their heart. He thus addressed the problem of life and death by reminding his disciple not to worry about it due to the constant change of nature and leaving him to find his path to awakening through the improvement of his individual efforts. Vietnamese Buddhism found its golden age under the Lý (1009-1225) and Trần (1226-1400) dynasties.

According to researcher Nguyễn Thế Anh, Vietnam was essentially a Buddhist country under these two dynasties, as was the Theravāda kingdom of Ayutthaya. But there is still a visible difference in that this Siamese kingdom continued to read Buddhist texts in Sanskrit and Pali and to consider salvation as the result of efforts made by the individual themselves to attain Buddhahood. As for Vietnamese Buddhism, it accepts borrowing not only Classical Chinese to read these Buddhist texts but also the collective path to salvation.

Before becoming the founder of the Lý dynasty, Lý Công Uẩn (974-1028) began his youth in the Cổ Pháp pagoda where his adoptive father, the monk Khánh Vân, introduced him at the age of 7 to a famous monk, Vạn Hạnh of the Vinitaruci school, who would later become his eminent advisor in domestic politics and diplomacy. Before his death, he left us a kê entitled Thi Đệ Tử (Advice to Disciples):

Thân như bóng chóp có rồi không
Cối xanh tươi thu não nùng
Mặc cuộc thịnh suy đừng sợ hãi
Kià kià ngọn cỏ gió sương đông.

Man’s life is a flash, born and soon gone
Green in spring, the tree sheds its leaves in autumn
Why fear greatness and decline?
Blooming and fading are but dewdrops clinging to a blade of grass

Other monks were as famous as Vạn Hạnh under the Lý dynasty. This is the case of the monk Không Lô (1016-1094) who resided at Hà Trạch pagoda. He was also known for his participation in state affairs as the Master of the Kingdom (Quốc Sư) under the reign of King Lý Nhân Tôn. He is still credited today with the invention of Vietnamese casting. He belonged to both the Vô Ngôn Thông and Thảo Đường schools. Under the Lý dynasty, the preeminence of Buddhism undeniably favored the construction of a large number of pagodas, the most famous of which was the One Pillar Pagoda (Chùa Một Cột). This pagoda was restored several times during its existence. According to researcher Hà Văn Tấn, few pagodas retain their architectural and sculptural style dating from the Lý and Trần dynasties. This same observation was noted by King Lê Thánh Tôn. It was later inscribed on the back of the stele of Chùa Đọi pagoda during his visit: Minh khấu hung tàn, tự dĩ canh (The pagoda was in this bad state because of the cruelty of the Ming soldiers).

Unlike the kings of the Lý dynasty, the kings of the Trần dynasty attempted to unify all religious and local beliefs into a single dominant religion under the aegis of their own religious school, Trúc Lâm (Bamboo Forest). This school was more politically engaged than the dhyana school in China.

According to King Trần Nhân Tôn, founder of the Trúc Lâm school, Buddhism was meant to serve social life as much as religious life (đời và đạo). It is through him that Trúc Lâm Buddhism shows its path and its quintessence in its doctrine. Being a king, he knew how to channel popular fervor and bravely resist two Mongol invasions with his people. Being a father, he knew how to rigorously educate his children, especially his son Trần Thuyên, the future King Trần Anh Tôn. A few years later (1298), he retired to a monastery in Yên Tử to found the Trúc Lâm sect with two other monks. Despite his commitment to serving the nation and social life, Trúc Lâm dhyana Buddhism encountered serious problems as a state religion. The king’s authority could be undermined by the inherent shortcomings of Buddhism: compassion, generosity, amnesty, forgiveness, largesse granted to Buddhist foundations, etc. A Buddhist king could not assert the interests of the state against the precepts of Buddhism because he might fail in his duty by granting grace to his enemy. This was the case of King Lý Thánh Tôn, whom historian Lê Văn Hưu did not hesitate to openly criticize in his work Đại Việt Sử Ký (Historical Records of Great Việt) for the forgiveness granted to the rebel enemy Nùng Trí Cao. For this historian, political order was no longer in force.

Sometimes the largesse granted by the state to pagodas in the form of financial subsidies and land donations made these institutions wealthier than the state itself. Under the Lý dynasty, murders were punished in the same way as ordinary crimes. This did not allow for distinguishing the severity of the punishment but rather caused latent laxity and contempt for the judicial system, as the defendant forgot to weigh the acts they had committed. By claiming to be governed by a higher power, the monks placed themselves only under the authority of their superiors and conformed solely to the laws established by the Buddhist clergy (or vinaya). They were beyond the reach of imperial laws. For this reason, Confucian scholars began to express their concerns about the relaxation of the political and judicial system and the development of chronic rural unrest caused by peasants (such as Nguyễn Bố, Phạm Sư Ôn) and by the Cham offensive led by Chế Bồng Nga during the reign of King Trần Dự Tôn (1342-1369). The court mandarin Trương Hán Siêu, under the reigns of Trần Anh Tôn and Trần Minh Tôn, denounced the growing influence of Buddhist institutions over the rural population. One of the brilliant students of the scholar Chu Văn An, the Confucianist Lê Quát did not spare words in openly denouncing the Buddhist beliefs of all social classes.

The return to Confucian order proved necessary with Hồ Qúi Ly, the usurper of the Trần. He attempted to purify Buddhist doctrine in the year 1396 and implemented stricter control over the structure of Buddhism by appointing laypeople within the Buddhist hierarchy. Monks under the age of fifty were forced to return to civilian life.

The occupation of Vietnam by the Ming (1407-1428) favored the strengthening of Confucianism and bureaucracy as desired by their assimilation policy. Institutional Buddhism lost the protection of the court and its political influence under the Lê. The code of the latter undoubtedly reflected Confucian rigor in punishments to restore not only morality but also imperial authority.

Vietnamese Buddhism continued to decline under the Nguyễn when they aligned with the Qing to adopt a Chinese bureaucratic model at the beginning of the 19th century. Despite this, Buddhism remains a popular religion because, beyond its precepts (generosity, affability, compassion, meditation, etc.), it easily adapts to local customs, traditions, and beliefs.

It is this tolerance that, over the centuries, has made this religion an appealing philosophy that is easily accessible to all Vietnamese.

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Trà đạo

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Before talking about the Japanese tea ceremony (or chanoyu), it is desirable to mention the origin of tea. Was tea discovered by the Chinese? Probably not, because no wild tea trees are found in China. However, this primitive plant of the same family as the Chinese one (Camellia Sinensis) was found in the northeastern region of India (Assam). Then it was later detected in the wild in the border regions of China such as Tibet, Burma, Sichuan, Yunnan, Vietnam, etc. It is interesting to recall that Sichuan was the kingdom of Shu and Yunnan that of Dian, having a very intimate link with the Lo Yue tribe (the ancestors of today’s Vietnamese). Later, these regions Sichuan and Yunnan as well as Vietnam were conquered and annexed by the Chinese during the Qin and Han dynasties. One is led to conclude that the tea tree is not a product of the Chinese, but they had the merit of domesticating this tea tree so that it would have its full delicious aroma. At first, tea was used by the Chinese as a medicine but it was not adopted in any case as a beverage. Its spread to a large number of users took place during the Tang dynasty (starting from 618).

Tea later became a classic beverage widespread in Chinese society with the appearance of the book titled « The Classic of Tea » by Lu Yu (733-804), intended to teach the Chinese how to prepare tea. It is Lu Yu himself who specified in his book: « The tea plant is a precious plant found in southern China. »

The sage Confucius had the opportunity to speak about the Bai Yue people in the « Analects » to his disciples: The Bai Yue people living south of the Yangtze River have a lifestyle, language, traditions, customs, and specific food. They dedicate themselves to rice cultivation and differ from us who are accustomed to cultivating millet and wheat. They drink water from a kind of plant gathered in the forest known as « tea. » It is interesting to recall that from the Qin-Han era onwards, there existed an imperial institution composed of local scholars (the fanshi) considered magicians specialized in star rites and government recipes. Their role was to collect, each within their own territory, ritual procedures, beliefs, local medicines, systems of representations, cosmologies, myths, legends as well as local products and submit them to political authority.

It could either retain them or not and incorporate them in the form of regulations with the aim of increasing imperial power within an ethnologically very diverse nation and providing the emperor with the means for his divine vocation. This is why there were baseless Chinese legends about the tea plant, one involving Bodhidharma, the legendary founder of Chinese Zen religion, and the other involving Shen Nong, the divine Chinese farmer. To resist sleepiness during his meditation, the former cut off his eyelids and threw them to the ground. From this piece of flesh, the very first tea plant of humanity immediately sprang forth. It is certain that Zen monks were the first to use tea to resist sleep and maintain a relaxed and serene mind during their meditation. As for Shen Nong, it was by chance that while resting under the shade of a shrub (tea plant), some of its leaves fell into his bowl of hot water. From that day, he knew how to prepare tea (around 3000 BCE) in his very ancient work « Bencao Jing » dedicated to Chinese medicine. However, this book was written during the Han dynasty (25 – 225 CE). Moreover, it is known that he was buried in Changsha in the Bai Yue region. Was he really of Chinese origin? It would have been impossible for him to travel at that time if he were.

He was obviously part of the Bai Yue because his name, although written in Chinese characters, still retains a structure coming from the Yue (normally, Nong Shen should be written in Chinese characters). The Chinese place great importance on the quality of tea.
Tencha

They consider tea preparation as an art. That is why they are interested not only in selecting the highest quality teas but also in the accessories necessary for preparation (teapots, spring water, filtered or potable water, etc.) in order to achieve a specific, delicious, and light taste. As for the Japanese, tea preparation is considered a ritual because they learned about tea and its preparation from Zen monks. They elevate tea preparation as « an art of Zen living » while more or less maintaining Shinto influence. With the four fundamental principles of the way of tea: Harmony (wa), Respect (Kei), Purity (Sei), Tranquility (Jaku), the guest has the opportunity to fully free themselves while maintaining a harmonious sharing not only with nature, the accessories used in tea preparation, the place of the ceremony but also with the host and other guests. Upon crossing the threshold of the ceremony room measuring 4 tatami mats, the guest can speak more easily to anyone (who could be a monk, a noble, or even a deity) without distinguishing social class, in an egalitarian spirit.

The guest recognizes the quiddity of life, in particular the truth of their own person through respect towards everyone and everything (such as the instruments of chanoyu). Their self-love is no longer present within them, but only a kind of feeling of consideration or respect towards others remains. Their state of mind will be serene when their five senses are no longer sullied. This is the case when they contemplate a painting (kakemono) in the alcove of the room (tokonoma) or flowers in a pot (ikebana) with their eyes. They smell the pleasant aromatic scent through their nose. They hear the sound caused by water heated on a charcoal brazier. They handle the chanoyu instruments (tea scoop, chasen, tea bowl (chawan), etc.) in an orderly manner and moisten their mouth with sips of tea. Thus, all their five senses become pure. Tranquility (jaku) is the result that the tea drinker finds at the end of these three fundamental principles mentioned above, once their state of mind has found complete refuge in serenity now, whether they live amidst the crowd or not. Tranquility is interpreted as a virtue that transcends the cycle of life. It allows them to live and contemplate life in an ordinary world where their presence is no longer necessary.

The guest realizes that the way of tea is not so simple because it involves many rules to be able to drink good tea or not, but it is also an effective means of bringing tranquility to the mind to allow one to reach inner illumination in meditation.

Sen no Rikyu

For the tea master Sen no Rikyu, who had the merit of establishing the protocols for preparing tea, the way of drinking tea is very simple: boil water, then make the tea and drink it in the correct manner.

The way of tea is a sequence of events organized in a scrupulous and careful manner. This ceremony has a maximum of 4 guests and one host. They must walk through the garden of the place where the ceremony takes place. They must perform purification (wash their hands, rinse their mouth) before entering a modest cubic room usually located at the corner of the garden through a very low door. All guests must lower their heads to enter with respect and humility. In the past, to cross the threshold of this door, the samurai had to leave his sword outside the door before meeting the host. It is here that all guests can admire the interior of the room as well as the instruments for tea preparation. They can follow the protocol phases of tea preparation.

Each event carries such a particular significance that the guest recognizes at every important moment of the ceremony. It can be said that the way of tea brings harmony between the host and their guests and shortens not only the distance separating man from the sky but also that between the guests. This is why in the world of samurai, there is the following proverb: « Once, a meeting » (Ichigo, ichie) because no encounter is the same. This allows us to be like the samurai of old, in the present moment to savor and slow down each instant with our loved ones and friends.

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It is called « Thầy or master » because it was here that the Buddhist monk Từ Đạo Hạnh invented and taught the local population a unique art form: water puppet theater. There is also the Côn Sơn pagoda located on the mountain of the same name, 60 km from Hanoi in Hải Dương province. Comprising about twenty buildings, it is nestled in the pine forest at the top of a staircase with several hundred steps. It was here, upon withdrawing from political life, that the famous humanist Nguyễn Trãi left us an unforgettable poem entitled « The Song of Côn Sơn (Côn Sơn Ca) » in which he described the magnificent landscape of this mountain and attempted to summarize the life of a man who can only last at most a hundred years and for whom everyone seeks what they desire before finally returning to grass and dust. But the most visited pagoda remains the Perfume Pagoda (Chùa Hương). This is actually a complex of buildings constructed in the mountain cliffs. Located 60 km southwest of the capital, it is one of the national sanctuaries frequented by most Vietnamese along with the Bà Chúa Xứ Pagoda (Châu Đốc) near the Cambodian border during the Tết festival.In central Vietnam, the pagoda of the Celestial Lady (Chùa Thiên Mụ), located opposite the Perfume River (sông Hương), is full of charm, while in the south, in Tây Ninh province, not far from Saigon, nestles on the Black Lady Mountain (núi Bà Đen) a pagoda bearing the same name.

In the capital Hanoi alone, there are at least 130 pagodas in the surrounding area. There are as many villages as there are pagodas. It is difficult to list them all. But due to the whims of time and the ravages caused by war, there are very few buildings that have managed to keep intact the architectural and sculptural style dating from the Lý, Trần, and Lê dynasties.

Sometimes human wrongdoing is responsible for the destruction of certain famous pagodas. This is the case of the Báo Thiên pagoda, whose site was ceded to the French colonial authorities for the construction of the neo-Gothic style Saint Joseph church that can be seen today in the heart of the capital, not far from the famous Lake of the Restored Sword (Hồ Hoàn Kiếm) (Hanoi). Generally speaking, most of today’s pagodas visibly bear traces of restoration and renovation under the Nguyễn dynasty. However, their ritual objects, stone and bronze statues have been less altered and have retained their original state over the centuries.Moreover, when moving into the central and southern parts of Vietnam, one realizes that Cham and Khmer influences are not absent in the architecture of the pagodas, as these territories formerly belonged respectively to the kingdoms of Champa and Funan.

Despite the considerable number of pagodas and the variety of their sizes, the arrangement of their buildings remains unchanging. It is easy to recognize thanks to the following six famous Chinese characters: Nhất, Nhị, Tam, Đinh, Công, and Quốc (or 一, 二, 三, 丁, 工, and 国 in Chinese). Simplicity is visible in the model identified by the first character Nhất, where the buildings follow one single transverse row facing the porch (Tam Quan). This is what is found in most village pagodas that receive no state subsidies or in the Mekong Delta in southern Vietnam. The second character Nhị, meaning « two, » clearly recalls the arrangement of two parallel transverse rows facing the porch. This layout has the advantage of having at least three side doors and leads to a courtyard where vegetation is lush and omnipresent thanks to groves of shrubs and potted flowers. Sometimes there is a pond with lotuses and water lilies, which inevitably evokes serenity in harmony with nature.

With the third Tam character, there are three parallel transverse rows often connected in the middle by small bridges or a corridor. This is the case with the Kim Liên Pagoda (Hanoi) and Tây Phương Pagoda (Hà Tây). The first row corresponds to a group of buildings, the first of which is often called the « front hall » or tiền đường. Sometimes known by the Vietnamese name « bái đường, » this hall is used to receive all the faithful. It is protected at its entrance by guardian deities (or dvàrapalàs or hộ pháp) who, with threatening features, wear armor and display their weapons (halberd, helmet, etc.). Sometimes, alongside this front hall, the ten kings of hell (Thập điện diêm vương or Yamas) are enthroned, or in the corridor, the 18 arhats (Phật La Hán) in their various postures. This is the case in the Keo Pagoda (Chùa Keo), where the 18 arhats are present in the front hall. Sometimes there are also earth spirits or the protective spirit of the pagoda’s property (Đức Ông). One of the characteristics of the Vietnamese pagoda is the presence of the mother goddess Mẫu Hạnh (Liễu Hạnh Công Chúa), one of the four figures worshiped by the Vietnamese. Her veneration is visible, for example, in the front hall of the Mía Pagoda (Chùa Mía, Hà Tây). Then, in a second building slightly elevated compared to the first, there are incense burners as well as a stone stele recounting the history of the pagoda. That is why it is called « nhà thiêu hương (or incense burning hall). » It is also at the back of this building that there is an altar in front of which the monks recite prayers with the faithful while striking a wooden bell (mõ) and an inverted bronze bell (chuông). It is sometimes possible to find the bell in this group of buildings if the bell tower location (gác chuông) is not planned next to (or above) the porch. Regardless of the size of the pagoda, there must be at least three buildings in this first row.

After this, we come to the most important row of the pagoda, which corresponds to the main altar hall (thượng điện). This is where the pantheon, as rich as it is hierarchical, is located. It is spread over three pedestals. On the highest pedestal, against the back wall, is the altar of the Buddhas of the Three Eras (Tam Thế). On this altar, according to the Mahayana Buddhism conception (Phật Giáo Đại Thừa), are three statues representing the Past (Quá Khứ), the Present (Hiện Tại), and the Future (Vị Lai), each seated on a lotus throne. On the second pedestal, slightly lower than the first, sit the three statues known as the three existences, with Amitabha Buddha (Phật A Di Đà) in the middle, the Bodhisattva Avalokitecvara on the left (Bồ Tát Quan Âm), and the Bodhisattva Mahasthamaprapta on the right (Bồ Tát Đại Thế Chí). Generally, Amitabha Buddha is of a more imposing stature compared to the other two. Their presence reflects the importance that Vietnamese people place on the existence of the Pure Land (Tịnh Độ) in Buddhism.

This belief is so popular among Vietnamese people because, according to them, there exists the Western Paradise (Sukhàvati or Tây Phương cực lạc) presided over by the Buddha of Infinite Light (Amitabha), to which he guides the souls of the dead. By invoking his name, the devotee could access this paradise through their request for grace from the Bodhisattva Avalokitecvara acting as an intercessor. According to the Vietnamese researcher Nguyễn Thế Anh, it was the monk Thảo Đường, brought back to the country by King Lý Thánh Tôn during his military expedition to Champa (Đồng Dương), who proposed this method of enlightenment through intuition and the numbing of the mind by reciting the name of Buddha. This is also why Vietnamese Buddhists have the habit of saying A Di Đà (Amitabha) instead of the word « hello » when they meet.

Diagram of the interior arrangement of the
pagoda with the character Công

Finally, on the lowest and widest pedestal, larger than the other two, are Cakyamouni, the Buddha of the Present, and his two greatest disciples: Kasyapa (Đại Ca Diếp) and his cousin Ananda (Tôn Giả A Nan). In some pagodas, there is a fourth pedestal on which stands the Buddha of the Future, Maitreya, with the bodhisattva Samantabhadra (Phổ Hiền Bồ Tát), symbolizing practice on his right, and the bodhisattva Manjusri (Bồ Tát Văn Thù Sư Lợi), symbolizing wisdom on his left. The number of statues displayed on the altars varies depending on the fame of the pagoda in question. This is largely due to offerings from the faithful. This is the case with the Mía Pagoda (Chùa Mía), which has 287 statues, and the Trăm Gian Pagoda (Hà Tây) with 153 statues, etc.

As for the last row of the pagoda (or hậu đường), it corresponds to the rear hall and has a multifunctional character. Some pagodas reserve it for the residence of the monks (tăng đường). Others use it as a place of worship for spirits or heroes such as Mạc Đĩnh Chi (Chùa Dâu pagoda) or Đặng Tiến Đông (Trăm Gian pagoda, Hà Tây). This is why it is customary to say: tiền Phật hậu Thần (Buddha in front and Spirits behind). It is the opposite layout that should be found in a temple (đình): Tiền Thần, Hậu Phật (Spirits in front and Buddha behind). Sometimes there is a bell tower or a pavilion for the souls of the deceased.

Sometimes, a room or an altar is reserved for those who have invested a lot of money in the construction or maintenance of the pagoda. Most of the donors were women, those who had a notable influence in state affairs. This is the case of Princess Mía, one of the concubines of Lord Trịnh. A special altar was reserved for her in the Mía pagoda, close to that of the Buddha. In the Bút Tháp pagoda, there is even a room dedicated to the veneration of female donors such as the great queen Trịnh Thị Ngọc Cúc, and the princesses Lê Thị Ngọc Duyên and Trịnh Thị Ngọc Cơ. These are figures who financially contributed to the construction of this pagoda in the 17th century.

In the backyard of the pagoda, one can find either a garden with stupas or a pond with water lilies. This is the case of the Phát Tích pagoda, whose backyard features 32 stupas of different sizes in its garden. Sometimes, the interior layout of the Vietnamese pagoda takes the shape of the character Đinh (丁). This is the fourth sign of the decimal cycle used in the Chinese calendar. This is the case of the Nhất Trụ pagoda, built by the Vietnamese king Lê Đại Hành in Hoa Lư (Ninh Bình), the ancient capital of Vietnam, and the Phúc Lâm pagoda (Tuyên Quang), erected under the Trần dynasty (13th-14th century).

The character that most Vietnamese pagodas often use in their interior layout remains the character Công (工). Besides the main rows detailed inside the pagoda, there are two long corridors connecting the front hall (tiền đường) to the rear hall (hậu đường). This creates a frame in the shape of a rectangle, thus encompassing the main rows previously mentioned in the character Tam. This arrangement has the appearance of the character Công inside the pagoda, but from the outside, it gives the impression of having the character Quốc (国) with the frame completed by the two long corridors.

[Return RELIGION]

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We are subject to the laws of birth and death.

But the nature of the Buddha remains the same over time.

Zen monk  Thuần Chân of the  Vinitaruci  sect (1101)

Version vietnamienne
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Unlike the word Đền (or temple), which refers to the place where a famous person (hero, king, or deity) is venerated, the word « Chùa » (or pagoda) is used solely to indicate the place where Buddha is honored. Before constructing this building, it is essential to carefully examine its location because it needs to be erected in harmony with the surrounding nature. However, unlike pagodas found in China, India, or Cambodia, monumentality and grandeur are not among the selection criteria for this construction. That is why the basic materials used are primarily wood, brick, and tile. The pagoda does not necessarily dominate the surrounding buildings. It can be found in almost every village. Similar to the communal house (or đình), it revives for most Vietnamese people the image of their village and, by extension, that of their homeland. It continues to exert a captivating appeal on them.

It is more visited than the communal house because no hierarchical barrier is visible there. It is absolute equality among humans, the motto preached by Buddha himself for sharing and delivering human suffering. Even in this serious and solemn setting, one sometimes finds classical theater performances (hát bội) in its courtyard. This is not the case with the people’s house (or communal house) where notability must be strictly respected. Hierarchical discrimination is more or less visible. Even the authority of the king (Phép vua thua lệ làng) cannot influence this village custom. That is why the pagoda is closer than ever to the Vietnamese. It is customary to say: Đất vua, Chùa làng, phong cảnh Bụt (The land belongs to the king, the pagoda to the village, the landscape to Buddha) to recall not only the closeness and the privileged and intimate connection of the pagoda with its villagers but also the harmony with nature.

Its role is predominant in the social life of the village, so much so that the pagoda is often mentioned in popular poems:

Ðầu làng có một cây đa,
Cuối làng cây thị, đàng xa ngôi chùa.

There is a banyan tree at the top of the village,
At the other end, there is a golden apple tree, and further away, a pagoda.

or

Rủ nhau xuống bể mò cua,
Lên non bẻ củi, vào chùa nghe kinh.

Rushing down to the sea to feel for crabs,
Climbing the mountain to gather firewood, entering the pagoda to listen to the sutras.

This shows how deeply attached the Vietnamese are to the sea and the mountain for sustenance and to the pagoda for spiritual nourishment. The pagoda is, in a way, their ideal and spiritual refuge in the face of natural calamities and the uncertainties they often encounter in their daily lives.

Until today, the origin of the word « Chùa » has not yet been clarified. No connection has been found in the etymology of the Chinese word « tự » (pagoda). According to some specialists, its origin should be sought in the Pali word « thupa » or « stupa » written in Sanskrit, because at the beginning of its construction, the Vietnamese pagoda resembled a stupa. Since the Vietnamese are accustomed to shortening the syllabic pronunciation of foreign-imported words, the word « stupa » thus became the word « stu » or « thu, » quickly evolving over the years into the word « chùa. » According to the Vietnamese researcher Hà Văn Tấn, this is only a hypothesis.

As for the word « Chiền » found in the ancient Vietnamese language (tiếng Việt cổ), it is used today in association with the word « Chùa » to refer to pagoda architecture. However, this word « Chiền » was often mentioned alone in the past to designate the pagoda. This is what was found in the poem titled « Chiền vắng âm thanh (deserted pagoda, solitary refuge) » by King Trần Nhân Tôn or that of Nguyễn Trãi « Cảnh ở tự chiền (or Landscape of the pagoda). » For many people, this word « Chiền » originates either from the Pali word « cetiya » or from the Sanskrit word « Caitya » to designate, in any case, the altar of the Buddha.

The construction of the pagoda requires as much time as effort in the preliminary research and exploration of the land. The site must strictly meet a certain number of criteria defined in geomancy because, according to the Vietnamese, this science could exert either a harmful or beneficial influence on the social life of villagers. The monk Khổng Lộ of the Vô Ngôn Thông sect (1016-1094), advisor to the Lý dynasty, had the opportunity to address this subject in one of his poems with the following verse: Tuyển đắc long xà địa khả cư (Choosing the land of dragons and snakes allows for peaceful dwelling) (or the choice of the best land can bring daily comfort in life).

We are used to building the pagoda either on a hill or a mound or on a sufficiently elevated area so that it can overlook the villagers’ homes. That is why the expression « Lên Chùa (or going to the pagoda), » undeniably linked to the topography of the pagoda, is commonly used by Vietnamese people even when the building in question is located on flat ground.

In most pagodas, especially those located in the North of Vietnam, the setting is both serene, mystical, and magnificent. Watercourses, mountains, hills, streams, etc., are always present, sometimes creating breathtaking landscapes due to their harmonious integration with nature. This is the case of the Master’s Pagoda (Chùa Thầy) between mountain and water. It perches on Mount Thầy in Hà Tây province, 20 km from the capital Hanoi.

[READING MORE]

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Version anglaise

Chúng ta tự gọi là « Thầy » vì chính tại đây, nhà sư Từ Đạo Hạnh đã sáng tạo và truyền dạy cho người dân địa phương một loại hình nghệ thuật độc đáo: múa rối nước. Ngoài ra còn có chùa Côn Sơn nằm trên ngọn núi cùng tên, cách Hànội 60km, thuộc tỉnh Hải Dương. Chùa gồm khoảng hai mươi tòa nhà, ẩn mình trong rừng thông, trên đỉnh một cầu thang dài vài trăm bậc. Chính tại đây, sau khi từ giã sự nghiệp chính trị, nhà nhân văn nổi tiếng Nguyễn Trãi đã để lại cho chúng ta một bài thơ khó quên mang tên « Côn Sơn Ca« , trong đó ông mô tả cảnh quan hùng vĩ của ngọn núi này và cố gắng tóm tắt cuộc đời của một người chỉ có thể sống tối đa một trăm năm và người mà mọi người đều tìm kiếm những gì mình mong muốn trước khi cuối cùng trở về với cỏ và bụi. Nhưng ngôi chùa được viếng thăm nhiều nhất vẫn là Chùa Hương. Trên thực tế, đây là một quần thể các công trình được xây dựng trên vách núi.

Nằm cách thủ đô 60 km về phía tây nam, đây là một trong những thánh địa quốc gia được hầu hết người Việt Nam lui tới, cùng với chùa Bà Chúa Xứ (Châu Đốc) gần biên giới Campuchia vào dịp Tết. Ở miền Trung Việt Nam, Chùa Thiên Mụ, nằm đối diện sông Hương, không hề kém phần quyến rũ, trong khi ở phía nam, tại tỉnh Tây Ninh, không xa Sài Gòn, nằm nép mình trên núi Bà Đen (núi Bà Đen), một ngôi chùa cùng tên.

Chỉ riêng tại thủ đô Hà Nội, đã có ít nhất 130 ngôi chùa ở khu vực lân cận. Số lượng chùa cũng nhiều như số làng. Thật khó để liệt kê hết. Tuy nhiên, do sự biến đổi của thời gian và sự tàn phá của chiến tranh, chỉ còn một số ít công trình vẫn giữ được nguyên vẹn phong cách kiến ​​trúc và điêu khắc có từ thời Lý, Trần và Lê.

Đôi khi sự tàn phá của con người là nguyên nhân dẫn đến sự phá hủy một số ngôi chùa nổi tiếng. Đây là trường hợp của chùa Báo Thiên, nơi mà địa điểm đã được nhượng lại cho chính quyền thực dân Pháp để xây dựng nhà thờ Thánh Giuse theo phong cách tân Gothic mà ngày nay có thể được nhìn thấy ở trung tâm thủ đô, không xa Hồ Hoàn Kiếm nổi tiếng (Hà Nội). Nhìn chung, hầu hết các ngôi chùa ngày nay vẫn còn lưu giữ rõ ràng dấu vết của việc trùng tu và tôn tạo dưới thời nhà Nguyễn. Mặt khác, các đồ vật tôn giáo, tượng đá và đồng của họ ít bị thay đổi và vẫn giữ được trạng thái ban đầu qua nhiều thế kỷ. Hơn nữa, khi chúng ta di chuyển vào miền Trung và miền Nam Việt Nam, chúng ta nhận thấy rằng ảnh hưởng của Chăm và Khmer không vắng mặt trong kiến ​​trúc của các ngôi chùa vì những lãnh thổ này trong quá khứ lần lượt thuộc về các vương quốc Champa và Funan.Mặc dù số lượng chùa chiền rất nhiều và quy mô đa dạng, nhưng cách sắp xếp các công trình kiến ​​trúc của chúng vẫn không thay đổi. Điều này dễ dàng nhận ra qua 6 chữ Hán nổi tiếng sau: Nhất, Nhị, Tam, Đinh, Công và Quốc (hay 一, 二, 三, 丁, 工 và 国 trong tiếng Trung). Sự đơn giản thể hiện rõ qua mẫu hình được xác định bởi chữ đầu tiên Nhất, trong đó các công trình kiến ​​trúc nối tiếp nhau thành một hàng ngang duy nhất hướng ra hiên nhà (Tam Quan).

Đây là hình ảnh thường thấy ở hầu hết các ngôi chùa ở các làng quê không có trợ cấp nhà nước hoặc ở Đồng bằng sông Cửu Long ở miền Nam Việt Nam. Chữ thứ hai Nhị có nghĩa là « hai » gợi nhớ đến cách sắp xếp hai hàng ngang song song hướng ra hiên nhà. Ngôi chùa này có ưu điểm là có ít nhất ba cửa phụ và dẫn vào một khoảng sân nơi thảm thực vật tươi tốt và hiện diện khắp nơi nhờ những bụi cây rậm rạp và hoa trồng trong chậu. Đôi khi chúng ta thấy mình đang ở giữa một ao sen và súng, không khỏi gợi nhớ đến sự thanh bình hòa hợp với thiên nhiên. Với chữ Tam thứ ba, có ba hàng ngang song song thường được nối với nhau ở giữa bằng những cây cầu nhỏ hoặc một hành lang. Đây là trường hợp của chùa Kim Liên (Hà Nội) và chùa Tây Phương (Hà Tây). Hàng đầu tiên tương ứng với một nhóm các tòa nhà, tòa nhà đầu tiên thường được gọi là « tiền đường ». Đôi khi được gọi bằng tên tiếng Việt là « bái đường », tòa nhà này được sử dụng để tiếp đón tất cả các tín đồ. Nó được bảo vệ tại lối vào bởi các vị thần hộ mệnh (hoặc dvàrapalàs hoặc hộ pháp), những người, với những nét mặt đe dọa, mặc áo giáp và trưng bày vũ khí của họ (giáo, mũ sắt, v.v.). Đôi khi, mười vị vua của địa ngục (Thập điện diêm vương hoặc Yamas) ngồi trên ngai vàng bên cạnh phòng trước này, hoặc 18 vị La Hán (Phật La Hán) trong các tư thế khác nhau của họ trong hành lang. Đây là trường hợp của chùa (Chùa Keo), nơi 18 vị La Hán hiện diện trong phòng trước. Đôi khi còn có thần đất hoặc thần bảo vệ tài sản của chùa (Đức Ông).

Một trong những đặc điểm của chùa Việt Nam là sự hiện diện của mẫu thần Mẫu Hạnh (Liễu Hạnh Công Chúa), một trong bốn vị thần được người Việt Nam thờ phụng. Sự tôn kính của bà có thể thấy rõ ở gian trước của chùa Mía (Chùa Mía, Hà Tây). Sau đó, trong một tòa nhà thứ hai cao hơn một chút so với tòa nhà thứ nhất, có những lư hương cũng như tấm bia đá kể lại câu chuyện về ngôi chùa. Đây là lý do tại sao nó được gọi là « nhà thiêu hương ». Cũng ở phía sau của tòa nhà này có một bàn thờ, phía trước có các nhà sư tụng kinh cùng các tín đồ bằng cách đánh một chiếc chuông gỗ (mõ) và một chiếc chuông đồng úp ngược (chông). Đôi khi có thể tìm thấy chuông trong nhóm các tòa nhà này nếu vị trí của tháp chuông (gác chuông) không được quy hoạch bên cạnh (hoặc trên sàn) hiên nhà. Bất kể kích thước của ngôi chùa, phải có ít nhất ba tòa nhà cho hàng đầu tiên này.Sau đó, chúng ta thấy hàng quan trọng nhất của ngôi chùa tương ứng với phòng của các bàn thờ chính (thượng điện). Đây là nơi chúng ta có đền thờ phong phú và có thứ bậc. Nó được phân bổ trên ba bệ. Trên bệ cao nhất dựa vào bức tường phía sau, chúng ta thấy bàn thờ của các vị Phật của Ba Thời Đại (Tam Thế). Trên bàn thờ này, trong khái niệm Phật giáo Màhayàna (Phật Giáo Đại Thừa), xuất hiện ba bức tượng đại diện cho Quá khứ (Quá Khứ), Hiện tại (Hiện tại) và Tương lai (Vị Lai), mỗi bức tượng ngồi trên một tòa sen.

Trên bệ thứ hai, được đặt thấp hơn bệ thứ nhất một chút, là ba bức tượng được gọi là ba hiện hữu, với Đức Phật A Di Đà (Phật A Di Đà) ở giữa, Bồ Tát Quán Thế Âm ở bên trái (Bồ Tát Quan Âm) và Bồ Tát Đại Thế Chí ở bên phải (Bồ Tát Đại Thế Chí). Nhìn chung, Đức Phật A Di Đà có vóc dáng uy nghi hơn hai vị kia. Sự hiện diện của Ngài chứng minh tầm quan trọng của người Việt đối với sự tồn tại của Tịnh Độ trong Phật giáo. Niềm tin này rất phổ biến trong người Việt Nam vì theo họ, có cõi Tây Phương Cực Lạc (Sukhàvati hay Tây Phương Cực Lạc) do Đức Phật Vô Lượng Quang (Amitabha) chủ trì và là nơi dẫn dắt linh hồn người chết. Bằng cách gọi tên ngài, tín đồ có thể đến được cõi này nhờ lời cầu xin ân sủng từ Bồ Tát Quán Thế Âm làm người cầu thay. Theo nhà nghiên cứu Việt Nam Nguyễn Thế Anh, chính nhà sư Thảo Đường được vua Lý Thánh Tôn đưa về nước trong chuyến viễn chinh sang Chiêm Thành (Đồng Dương), người đã đề xuất quá trình giác ngộ này bằng trực giác và làm tê liệt tâm trí bằng cách niệm danh hiệu Đức Phật. Đây cũng là lý do tại sao Phật tử Việt Nam thường nói A Di Đà (Amitabha) thay vì từ « xin chào » khi gặp nhau. 

Sơ đồ bố trí nội thất của chùa chữ Công

 Cuối cùng, trên bệ cuối cùng, thấp hơn và rộng hơn hai bệ kia, là tượng Phật Thích Ca Mâu Ni, Đức Phật của Hiện Tại, và hai vị đại đệ tử của ngài: Đại Ca Diếp (Kasyapa) và Tôn Giả A Nan (Ananda). Ở một số chùa, có bệ thứ tư mô tả Đức Phật của Tương Lai, Di Lặc, bên phải là Bồ Tát Phổ Hiền Bồ Tát, biểu tượng của sự thực hành, và bên trái là Bồ Tát Văn Thù Sư Lợi, biểu tượng của trí tuệ. Số lượng tượng được trưng bày trên các bệ thờ khác nhau tùy thuộc vào danh tiếng của ngôi chùa. Phần lớn là nhờ vào sự cúng dường của các tín đồ. Đó là trường hợp chùa Mía có 287 bức tượng, chùa Trăm Gian (Hà Tây) có 153 bức tượng, v.v.Hàng cuối cùng của chùa (hay hậu đường) tương ứng với gian sau và có tính chất đa chức năng. Một số chùa dành nơi này làm nơi ở của người tu hành (tăng đường). Một số chùa khác lại dùng làm nơi thờ cúng các bậc hiền tài, anh hùng như Mạc Đĩnh Chi (chùa Dâu) hay Đặng Tiến Đông (chùa Trăm Gian, Hà Tây). Chính vì vậy mà chúng ta thường nói: tiền Phật hậu Thần (trước Phật, sau Thần). Đây là mô hình ngược lại mà chúng ta thường thấy ở đình chùa: Tiền Thần, Hậu Phật. (trước Phật, sau Phật). Đôi khi có gác chuông hoặc lầu Manes dành cho người đã khuất. 

Đôi khi, một căn phòng hoặc bàn thờ được dành riêng cho những người đã đầu tư nhiều tiền vào việc xây dựng hoặc bảo trì chùa. Hầu hết những người cúng dường là phụ nữ, những người có ảnh hưởng đáng kể đến các vấn đề của nhà nước. Đây là trường hợp của công chúa Mía, một trong những phi tần của Chúa Trịnh. Một bàn thờ gần với bàn thờ của Đức Phật đã được dành riêng cho bà tại chùa Mía. Trong chùa Bút Tháp, có một phòng dành riêng để tôn kính những người cúng dường nữ như hoàng hậu Trịnh Thị Ngọc Cúc, các công chúa Lê Thị Ngọc Duyên và Trịnh Thị Ngọc Cơ. Đây là những người đã đóng góp tài chính cho việc xây dựng ngôi chùa này vào thế kỷ 17.

 Phía sau chùa, người ta có thể tìm thấy một khu vườn với các bảo tháp hoặc một ao súng. Đây là trường hợp của chùa Phát Tích, với sân sau có 32 bảo tháp với kích thước khác nhau trong vườn. Hình dạng của chữ Đinh (丁) đôi khi được tìm thấy trong bố cục bên trong của chùa Việt Nam. Đây là dấu hiệu thứ tư của chu kỳ thập phân được sử dụng trong lịch Trung Quốc. Đây là trường hợp của chùa Nhất Trụ do vua Việt Nam Lê Đại Hành xây dựng tại Hoa Lư (Ninh Bình), cố đô của Việt Nam, và chùa Phúc Lâm (Tuyên Quang) được xây dựng dưới thời nhà Trần (thế kỷ 13-14).

Chữ mà hầu hết các ngôi chùa Việt Nam thường sử dụng trong thiết kế nội thất là chữ Công (工). Bên cạnh các dãy chính được thiết kế tỉ mỉ bên trong chùa, còn có hai hành lang dài nối tiền đường với hậu đường. Điều này tạo thành một khung hình chữ nhật, bao quanh các dãy chính đã được đề cập trước đó trong chữ Tam. Cách sắp xếp này trông giống chữ Công bên trong chùa, nhưng nhìn từ bên ngoài lại giống chữ Quốc (国), với khung được hoàn thiện bởi hai hành lang dài.

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is compared to what we see today at the Champa Sculpture Museum in Da Nang.

French version
Vietnamnese version

Unfortunately, for an unknown reason, its distinctive attributes were broken and confiscated by the office of the Bình Định People’s Committee, which currently oversees the Đồng Dương site. They have not been returned to the Cham Museum in Đà Nẵng to this day, despite the piece being exhibited to the public for a long time. This is why the bronze statue continues to be the subject of various iconographic interpretations. Based on the information provided (the photos) at the time he conducted an in-depth study in 1984, Jean Boisselier thought it represented Tara. For this, he tried to rely on the idols of Đại Hữu, the codification of the deity’s gestures (mudra), the rank in the Buddhist pantheon, the ornamentation of the adornments (nànàlankàravati), the importance of the gaze, and the existence of the third eye to successfully identify the deity.

Some Vietnamese researchers see in this statue the wife Lakshmi of Vishnu because one of its two distinctive attributes includes the conch (con ốc). For the Vietnamese researcher Ngô Văn Doanh, there is no doubt about the identity of this deity. It is indeed Laksmindra-Lokesvara because, for him, each distinctive attribute has a particular meaning. The lotus symbolizes beauty and purity. As for the conch, it symbolizes the propagation of Buddha’s teaching and awakening after the sleep of ignorance.

This is also the hypothesis long accepted by Vietnamese researchers. According to the Thai specialist Nanda Chutiwongs, this magnificent bronze is called Prajnàpàramità (Perfection of Wisdom). But this does not diminish the conviction of most specialists who, like Jean Boisselier, continue to see in this exceptional bronze the alluring goddess Tara, whose heavy breasts remain one of the prominent features found in her early youth. She is always the consort of the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara.

Recently, in the report on archaeology that took place in 2019 in Hanoi, researchers Trần Kỳ Phương and Nguyễn Thị Tú Anh had the opportunity to redefine the name of the bronze statue, Tara, based on the decorative image of the Buddha found in the statue’s hair, the distinctive attributes (the lotus and the conch) in her two hands, as well as the hand gesture. According to these Vietnamese researchers, Tara is the female incarnation of the meditation Buddha Amoghasiddhi, heir of the historical Buddha Shakyamuni in tantric Buddhism (Tibet).

He was often seated under the fan spread by the seven-headed cobra Mucalinda, known as « Effective Success. » In iconography, he often held a sword in his left hand and a significant gesture recognizable under the term « Abhayamudra (or absence of fear) » in his right hand during his meditation.

That is why the decorative image of the small Buddha, corresponding exactly to what is described, is found on the hair of the bronze statue. Moreover, this statue is green in color all over the body. This is also the identity of the dhyani Buddha Amoghasiddhi. If the lotus symbolizes purity, the conch and the gesture of his hand under the conch correspond well to the dharmacakra mudra, setting in motion the wheel of the Dharma law.

According to researchers Trần Kỳ Phương and Nguyễn Thị Tú Anh, the Yunnan region was once a relay zone intended to facilitate the spread of Tibetan religion and art throughout Southeast Asia via the route called the « Tea and Horse Road. » It was also the place where tantric Buddhism was revered by everyone, from the people to the king, and where the production of bronze bodhisattvas Lokesvara and Tara destined for Southeast Asia was extremely important from the 7th or 8th century onward.

That is why the veneration of the bodhisattvas Lokesvara or Tara was not unusual in Chămpa. Until now, no statue of Lokesvara has appeared or been discovered at Đồng Dương, particularly at the Buddhist monastery, because it was here that King Indravarman II erected a temple to venerate his protective Buddha Lokesvara. He even associated his own name with that of the bodhisattva Lokesvara to give this Buddhist site the name Laksmindra-Lokesvara.

That is why there is no doubt about the existence of the statue of Lokesvara. It is an enigma without explanation to this day. According to researcher Trần Kỳ Phương, it is possible that this statue was made of bronze and is the same size as that of Tara. It must have been placed on the altar at the same time as Tara’s when the honor was first given at that time. Perhaps after this glorification in its honor, it was moved elsewhere or buried in the ground because of the war.

In the second enclosure, there is a long waiting hall (or mandapa) (2) that Henri Parmentier called « the hall with windows » in his description. Then, in the third enclosure (3), there is a large pillared hall, about thirty meters long. It is probably the prayer hall of the monks (vihara) where a majestic imposing statue of Buddha sits, to whom the second altar is dedicated, with a base decorated in relief and surrounded by two haloed attendants. This Buddhist site was recognized by the Vietnamese authorities as a national heritage of the country in May 2001. The blinding destruction caused by American bombing during the war years left only one intact gopura tower at this site, which the local population calls « Tháp sáng » (or tower of light) because it is open to the four directions, letting in the light. Despite this, this site continues to revive a glorious past with its great monastery, which was at one time one of the renowned religious intellectual centers in Southeast Asia. It was here that, after his brilliant victory over Champa in 985, the Vietnamese king Lê Đại Hành (or Lê Hoàn) brought back to Vietnam an Indian monk (Thiên Trúc) who was staying at this monastery. In 1069, the great Vietnamese king Lý Thánh Tôn managed to capture a famous Chinese monk, Thảo Đường, here during his victory over Champa. But it was also here in 1301 that the founding king of the Vietnamese Zen school (Phái Trúc Lâm Yên Tử), Trần Nhân Tôn, accompanied by the Vietnamese monk Đại Việt and received by the talented Cham king Jaya Simhavarman III (Chế Mân in Vietnamese), the future husband of Princess Huyền Trân, spent 9 months meditating in this religious center. 

For the French researcher Jean Boisselier, Cham sculpture was always closely linked to history. Notable changes have been observed in the development of Cham sculpture, particularly statuary, in connection with historical events, changes of dynasties, or the relations that Champa had with its neighbors (Vietnam or Cambodia). That is why one cannot ignore that a change of dynasty encourages a creative momentum in the development of Cham sculpture, which is distinguished by a new particular style now known under the name « Đồng Dương. »

Phong cách  Đồng Dương

This one cannot go unnoticed due to its following facial features: prominent eyebrows connected in a continuous, sinuous line rising up to the hairline, thick lips with the corners turned up, a mustache sometimes mistaken for the upper lip, and a flat nose, wide from the front and aquiline in profile, a narrow forehead, and a short chin. The absence of a smile is noteworthy. This style continued to develop alongside Mahayana Buddhism in other regions of Champa under the reigns of the immediate successors of the Buddhist king Indravarman II. They continued to particularly venerate Avalokitesvara and to adopt Buddhism as the state religion. This is known from royal inscriptions. This is the case with the Ratna-Lokesvara sanctuary, which King Jaya Simhavarman I, the nephew of King Indravarman II, patronized. This sanctuary has been located at Đại Hữu in the Quảng Bình region. In this sacred place, a large number of Buddhist sculptures have been unearthed. Then around Mỹ Đức in the same province of Quảng Bình, a Buddhist complex was discovered with architectural and decorative similarities to those found at Đại Hữu and Đồng Dương.

Buddhist faith is not absent either in Phong Nha, where some caves used as places of worship still retain their imprint over the years. Finally, a temple dedicated to the deity Mahïndra-Lokesvarà was erected in 1914 in Kon Klor (Kontum) by a chief named Mahïndravarman. There were even two pilgrimages organized by a high dignitary on the orders of King Yàvadvipapura (Java) with the aim of deepening the siddhayatra (or mystical knowledge), as reported by the inscriptions of Nhan Biểu dating from 911 AD.

Cham dynasty of Indrapura

Bouddha statue, Thăng Bình, Quảng Nam

854-898     Indravarman II (Dịch-lợi Nhân-đà-la-bạt-ma)
898-903     Jaya Simharvarman I (Xà-da Tăng-gia-bạt-ma)
905-910     Bhadravarman III (Xà-da Ha-la-bạt-ma)
910-960     Indravarman III (Xà-da Nhân-đức-man)
960-971     Jaya Indravarman I (Dịch-lợi Nhân-di-bàn)
971-982     Paramesvara Varman I (Dịch-lợi Bế- Mĩ Thuế)
982-986     Indravarman IV (Dịch-lợi Nhân-đà-la-bạt-ma)
986-988     Lưu Kế Tông
989-997     Vijaya shri Harivarman II (Dịch-lợi Băng-vương-la)
997-1007   Yan Pu Ku Vijaya Shri (Thất-ly Bì-xà-da-bạt-ma)
1007-1010  Harivarman III (Dịch-lợi Ha-lê-bạt-ma)
1010-1018  Paramesvara Varman II (Thi Nặc Bài Ma Diệp)
1020-1030  Vikranta Varman II (Thi Nặc Bài Ma Diệp)
1030-1044  Jaya Simhavarman II (Sạ Đẩu)

This Buddhist faith began to seriously falter in the face of the invasion of the people from the North (the Vietnamese) who had just been freed from Chinese oppression. These, led by the new king Lê Đại Hành, did not hesitate to sack the capital Indrapura in 982 after the Cham king Parameçvaravarman I (Ba Mĩ Thuế) had clumsily and for an unknown reason detained two Vietnamese emissaries Từ Mục and Ngô Tử Canh and openly supported Ngô Tiên, son of the liberator king of the Vietnamese nation, Ngô Quyền, in the power struggle.

Mahayana Buddhism did not allow the Cham kings to find everything they needed in their struggle against the Vietnamese enemies. They began to doubt the wisdom of this religion when it failed to attract the local population until then. It remained the personal religion of choice for the elites and their Cham kings. They preferred to seek their salvation in the worship of their destructive god Shiva in order to better protect their victories and to enable them to resist, more or less, the foreign invaders (Chinese, Mon, Khmer, and Vietnamese) in the creation, maintenance, and survival of their nation.

Their perpetual belligerence, probably inspired by Shaivism, became a strong argument and a legitimate justification first for the Chinese and then for the Vietnamese to carry out military interventions and gradually annex their territory in the march southward (Nam Tiến).

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Bibliographic references

Avalokitesvara: name of a bodhisattva representing the infinite compassion of the Buddha.
Bodhisattva: being destined for enlightenment (Bồ tát)
Dharma: moral law (Đạo pháp)
Lokesvara: lord of the world. Designation of a Buddha or Avalokitesvara.
Mandapa: religious building with columns within the temple enclosure.
Tara: the one who saves. Female counterpart of Avalokitesvara. Highly revered in India and Tibet.
Vishnu: God who maintains the world between its creation by Brahma and its destruction by Shiva.

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The discovery of a large number of Mahayana elements, particularly statues of the deity Avalokitesvara, the most popular and revered icon of Mahayana Buddhism, undeniably marks the strengthening of its establishment and doctrine in Champa and testifies to the benevolence of the Cham sovereigns. This special royal consideration allowed it to remain a secondary religion, living for several centuries in the shadow of Hinduism, patiently awaiting its time of glory and influence. It was in the 8th and 9th centuries that, after embracing certain countries such as the Khmer Empire and the kingdoms of Srivijaya and Sailendra, Mahayana Buddhism found its full flourishing in accordance with the arrival of the new ruling Bhrgu lineage in the person of Indravarman II. It is also in the Chinese annals (for example, Tân Đường Thư) that the name « Tchan-Tcheng » (or Campapura (Chiêm Thành in Vietnamese)) appeared for the first time, replacing Huanwang (Hoàn Vương), which had until then been linked to the royal lineage of Prathivindravarman of the South (Kauthara) (Nha Trang).
Having transferred the capital to Indrapura (near Hội An) (or Faifo) in the Amaravati region (Quảng Nam and Quảng Ngãi), Indravarman II showed a particular personal inclination towards Mahayana Buddhism despite maintaining Shaivism as the state religion. It cannot be ignored that King Indravarman II had the opportunity to recall in his royal inscriptions that sovereignty over Champa had come to him solely by the favor of destiny and thanks to merits acquired in many previous existences. It seems that through this teaching, he was more or less attached to the doctrine of Buddhism, particularly to the accomplishment of spreading the Dharma, more than any other Cham king who found his salvation in union with Shiva. According to Georges Coedès, he was designated by Vikrântavarman III, who died without offspring, at the request of the great sages of the kingdom. What is remembered about this king is his Buddhist fervor, his extraordinary wisdom, and his unwavering faith in Lokesvara (Lord of the World). In 875, he had an important Buddhist temple erected in his capital Indrapura on the Đồng Dương site, not far from the Mỹ Sơn sanctuary where the national god Shiva Bhadresvara resided, and he entirely dedicated it to his personal god, Laksmindra-Lokesvara.

We also see in the choice of the name of this temple a practice now used by the Cham sovereigns, always associating the name of the protective deity with that of the donor of the establishment. Despite the primary worship of Shiva for his devastating powers and brilliant victories in protecting the kingdom, the veneration of Lokesvara, representing a Buddha or Avalokitesvara (a bodhisattva), symbolizes not only peace and benevolence but also the protection of this deity over the country and its inhabitants, so much so that Hinduism and Buddhism, although different philosophically and religiously, can now coexist in Champa. According to the French archaeologist Henri Parmentier, the Buddhist site Đồng Dương also seems to encompass the king’s residence located at what is today called « ao vuông » (square-shaped pond). It appears that there is a secret water current that can communicate with a well located one kilometer to the east of the site. The construction of this site demonstrates a desire for innovation in grouping many isolated buildings within an imposing architectural achievement where the presence of Chinese and Indian influences is undeniable.
This is what is discovered in the general plan of this site. In its architecture and sculpture, certain aspects of the borrowing from Chinese art can be seen in terms of monumentality and power, while in the composition of the liturgical scenes and narrative panels there is an impeccable fidelity to the decorative conventions found in the temples of western India.

The construction of this site develops along an east-west axis 1300 meters long, with numerous brick buildings spread across three successive enclosures, each controlled by an entrance pavilion guarded by formidable and terrifying stone guardians (dvarapala). According to Henri Parmentier‘s description, it was in the western half of the first enclosure that he found in 1905 the most important sanctuary (1), probably housing the statue of Laksmindra-Lokesvara to whom the site was dedicated in 875 by King Indravarman II. This main sanctuary is preceded by a tower open to the four cardinal points (thap sang) and surrounded by 9 small temples arranged in a well-ordered layout.
For most Vietnamese researchers, the great masterpiece of bronze art that a peasant found by chance in 1978 while looking to collect some bricks in the ruins near the first enclosure, often referred to as Tara (Phật mẫu Tara), is none other than the statue of Laksmindra-Lokesvara (Quan Âm chuẩn đề). It is indeed Avalokitesvara appearing in a feminine form as a Bodhisattva (Bồ tát Quán Thế Âm) because in both hands, at the time of its discovery, a lotus and a conch were found.[Reading more]

[Champa buddhism: Part 3]

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Despite the adoption of Hinduism as the religion by the Cham at the beginning of the creation of their nation, Buddhism did not fail to demonstrate its notable influence among their local elites and leaders. They found in this religion a great number of advantages that allowed them to strengthen not only their legitimacy and power but also an essential touch of divinity in their governance through the notions of dharmaraja (Virtuous King) and cakravartin (Universal Monarch).

Being supposed to embody the power of dharma, they were invested with the sacred mandate to ensure the maintenance of order and religious faith in their kingdom. They were attached to the divine nature that the mission granted them. Similar to the Khmer kings, they gave particular importance to their deification in such a way that their posthumous name included that of the supreme deity with the aim of being equal to Buddha in the form of a Bodhisattva. This is the case of King Indravarman II with his posthumous name « Paramabuddhaloka » (Buddhist title). They thus became « superhumans » among men even if they were not of divine origin. Buddhism soon seduced them and made them adhere to its fundamental aspects: its tolerant spirit, its liberal character, its integration into local culture, and its emphasis on morality.

They brought in religious missionaries via merchant ships because Champa attracted Indian traders very early on. It had long been renowned for its forest products (eaglewood, ivory, spices, etc.). The exact date of the introduction of Buddhism to Champa is not known, but according to Chinese annals, it prospered in 605 AD, when the Chinese army led by General Lieou Fang (Lưu Phương) of the Sui dynasty (nhà Tùy) plundered the Champa capital Điển Xung during the reign of King Cambhuvarman (Phàn Chí in Vietnamese) and took away 1,350 Buddhist texts compiled in 564 volumes after reconquering Tonkin.

The presence of Buddhism should have been noticeable very early in Champa as well as in Vietnam by sea, because according to the Vietnamese scholar Phan Lạc Tuyên, Indian monks came to Vietnam at the beginning of the Christian era based on the story of Chu Đồng Tử, who was initiated into Buddhism during his encounter with an Indian monk. Religious missionaries had to land in Champa before they could reach Giao Chỉ (or Vietnam) and China.

Indrapura dynasty

Under the leadership of its rulers, Champa very early on promoted the establishment of Buddhism, as it was already mentioned by the famous monk Yijing (Nghĩa Tịnh) upon his return from his maritime journey in the Insulinde as one of the countries in Southeast Asia that held the Buddha’s doctrine in high esteem at the end of the 7th century during the reign of Wu Ze Tian (Vũ Tắc Thiên) of the Tang dynasty (Nhà Đường).

Thanks to archaeological remains found in central Vietnam, it is now known that Mahayana Buddhism (Phật giáo Đại Thừa) took root during the second half of the 7th century and gave rise to unprecedented models of Bodhisattva combining local tradition and stylistic elements from abroad, which have since served as a reference throughout the country.

[Champa buddhism: Part 2]

[Champa buddhism: Part 3]

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