Histoire category – Page 4 sur 45

Chùa Chiền Việt Nam: Phần 2 (Version vietnamienne)

j050807 Art, Histoire, Religion, Traditions, Vietnam octobre 18, 2025novembre 13, 2025

Chúng ta tự gọi là « Thầy » vì chính tại đây, nhà sư Từ Đạo Hạnh đã sáng tạo và truyền dạy cho người dân địa phương một loại hình nghệ thuật độc đáo: múa rối nước. Ngoài ra còn có chùa Côn Sơn nằm trên ngọn núi cùng tên, cách Hànội 60km, thuộc tỉnh Hải Dương. Chùa gồm khoảng hai mươi tòa nhà, ẩn mình trong rừng thông, trên đỉnh một cầu thang dài vài trăm bậc. Chính tại đây, sau khi từ giã sự nghiệp chính trị, nhà nhân văn nổi tiếng Nguyễn Trãi đã để lại cho chúng ta một bài thơ khó quên mang tên « Côn Sơn Ca« , trong đó ông mô tả cảnh quan hùng vĩ của ngọn núi này và cố gắng tóm tắt cuộc đời của một người chỉ có thể sống tối đa một trăm năm và người mà mọi người đều tìm kiếm những gì mình mong muốn trước khi cuối cùng trở về với cỏ và bụi. Nhưng ngôi chùa được viếng thăm nhiều nhất vẫn là Chùa Hương. Trên thực tế, đây là một quần thể các công trình được xây dựng trên vách núi.

Nằm cách thủ đô 60 km về phía tây nam, đây là một trong những thánh địa quốc gia được hầu hết người Việt Nam lui tới, cùng với chùa Bà Chúa Xứ (Châu Đốc) gần biên giới Campuchia vào dịp Tết. Ở miền Trung Việt Nam, Chùa Thiên Mụ, nằm đối diện sông Hương, không hề kém phần quyến rũ, trong khi ở phía nam, tại tỉnh Tây Ninh, không xa Sài Gòn, nằm nép mình trên núi Bà Đen (núi Bà Đen), một ngôi chùa cùng tên.

Chỉ riêng tại thủ đô Hà Nội, đã có ít nhất 130 ngôi chùa ở khu vực lân cận. Số lượng chùa cũng nhiều như số làng. Thật khó để liệt kê hết. Tuy nhiên, do sự biến đổi của thời gian và sự tàn phá của chiến tranh, chỉ còn một số ít công trình vẫn giữ được nguyên vẹn phong cách kiến trúc và điêu khắc có từ thời Lý, Trần và Lê.

Đôi khi sự tàn phá của con người là nguyên nhân dẫn đến sự phá hủy một số ngôi chùa nổi tiếng. Đây là trường hợp của chùa Báo Thiên, nơi mà địa điểm đã được nhượng lại cho chính quyền thực dân Pháp để xây dựng nhà thờ Thánh Giuse theo phong cách tân Gothic mà ngày nay có thể được nhìn thấy ở trung tâm thủ đô, không xa Hồ Hoàn Kiếm nổi tiếng (Hà Nội). Nhìn chung, hầu hết các ngôi chùa ngày nay vẫn còn lưu giữ rõ ràng dấu vết của việc trùng tu và tôn tạo dưới thời nhà Nguyễn. Mặt khác, các đồ vật tôn giáo, tượng đá và đồng của họ ít bị thay đổi và vẫn giữ được trạng thái ban đầu qua nhiều thế kỷ. Hơn nữa, khi chúng ta di chuyển vào miền Trung và miền Nam Việt Nam, chúng ta nhận thấy rằng ảnh hưởng của Chăm và Khmer không vắng mặt trong kiến trúc của các ngôi chùa vì những lãnh thổ này trong quá khứ lần lượt thuộc về các vương quốc Champa và Funan.Mặc dù số lượng chùa chiền rất nhiều và quy mô đa dạng, nhưng cách sắp xếp các công trình kiến trúc của chúng vẫn không thay đổi. Điều này dễ dàng nhận ra qua 6 chữ Hán nổi tiếng sau: Nhất, Nhị, Tam, Đinh, Công và Quốc (hay 一, 二, 三, 丁, 工 và 国 trong tiếng Trung). Sự đơn giản thể hiện rõ qua mẫu hình được xác định bởi chữ đầu tiên Nhất, trong đó các công trình kiến trúc nối tiếp nhau thành một hàng ngang duy nhất hướng ra hiên nhà (Tam Quan).

Đây là hình ảnh thường thấy ở hầu hết các ngôi chùa ở các làng quê không có trợ cấp nhà nước hoặc ở Đồng bằng sông Cửu Long ở miền Nam Việt Nam. Chữ thứ hai Nhị có nghĩa là « hai » gợi nhớ đến cách sắp xếp hai hàng ngang song song hướng ra hiên nhà. Ngôi chùa này có ưu điểm là có ít nhất ba cửa phụ và dẫn vào một khoảng sân nơi thảm thực vật tươi tốt và hiện diện khắp nơi nhờ những bụi cây rậm rạp và hoa trồng trong chậu. Đôi khi chúng ta thấy mình đang ở giữa một ao sen và súng, không khỏi gợi nhớ đến sự thanh bình hòa hợp với thiên nhiên. Với chữ Tam thứ ba, có ba hàng ngang song song thường được nối với nhau ở giữa bằng những cây cầu nhỏ hoặc một hành lang. Đây là trường hợp của chùa Kim Liên (Hà Nội) và chùa Tây Phương (Hà Tây). Hàng đầu tiên tương ứng với một nhóm các tòa nhà, tòa nhà đầu tiên thường được gọi là « tiền đường ». Đôi khi được gọi bằng tên tiếng Việt là « bái đường », tòa nhà này được sử dụng để tiếp đón tất cả các tín đồ. Nó được bảo vệ tại lối vào bởi các vị thần hộ mệnh (hoặc dvàrapalàs hoặc hộ pháp), những người, với những nét mặt đe dọa, mặc áo giáp và trưng bày vũ khí của họ (giáo, mũ sắt, v.v.). Đôi khi, mười vị vua của địa ngục (Thập điện diêm vương hoặc Yamas) ngồi trên ngai vàng bên cạnh phòng trước này, hoặc 18 vị La Hán (Phật La Hán) trong các tư thế khác nhau của họ trong hành lang. Đây là trường hợp của chùa (Chùa Keo), nơi 18 vị La Hán hiện diện trong phòng trước. Đôi khi còn có thần đất hoặc thần bảo vệ tài sản của chùa (Đức Ông).

Một trong những đặc điểm của chùa Việt Nam là sự hiện diện của mẫu thần Mẫu Hạnh (Liễu Hạnh Công Chúa), một trong bốn vị thần được người Việt Nam thờ phụng. Sự tôn kính của bà có thể thấy rõ ở gian trước của chùa Mía (Chùa Mía, Hà Tây). Sau đó, trong một tòa nhà thứ hai cao hơn một chút so với tòa nhà thứ nhất, có những lư hương cũng như tấm bia đá kể lại câu chuyện về ngôi chùa. Đây là lý do tại sao nó được gọi là « nhà thiêu hương ». Cũng ở phía sau của tòa nhà này có một bàn thờ, phía trước có các nhà sư tụng kinh cùng các tín đồ bằng cách đánh một chiếc chuông gỗ (mõ) và một chiếc chuông đồng úp ngược (chông). Đôi khi có thể tìm thấy chuông trong nhóm các tòa nhà này nếu vị trí của tháp chuông (gác chuông) không được quy hoạch bên cạnh (hoặc trên sàn) hiên nhà. Bất kể kích thước của ngôi chùa, phải có ít nhất ba tòa nhà cho hàng đầu tiên này.Sau đó, chúng ta thấy hàng quan trọng nhất của ngôi chùa tương ứng với phòng của các bàn thờ chính (thượng điện). Đây là nơi chúng ta có đền thờ phong phú và có thứ bậc. Nó được phân bổ trên ba bệ. Trên bệ cao nhất dựa vào bức tường phía sau, chúng ta thấy bàn thờ của các vị Phật của Ba Thời Đại (Tam Thế). Trên bàn thờ này, trong khái niệm Phật giáo Màhayàna (Phật Giáo Đại Thừa), xuất hiện ba bức tượng đại diện cho Quá khứ (Quá Khứ), Hiện tại (Hiện tại) và Tương lai (Vị Lai), mỗi bức tượng ngồi trên một tòa sen.

Trên bệ thứ hai, được đặt thấp hơn bệ thứ nhất một chút, là ba bức tượng được gọi là ba hiện hữu, với Đức Phật A Di Đà (Phật A Di Đà) ở giữa, Bồ Tát Quán Thế Âm ở bên trái (Bồ Tát Quan Âm) và Bồ Tát Đại Thế Chí ở bên phải (Bồ Tát Đại Thế Chí). Nhìn chung, Đức Phật A Di Đà có vóc dáng uy nghi hơn hai vị kia. Sự hiện diện của Ngài chứng minh tầm quan trọng của người Việt đối với sự tồn tại của Tịnh Độ trong Phật giáo. Niềm tin này rất phổ biến trong người Việt Nam vì theo họ, có cõi Tây Phương Cực Lạc (Sukhàvati hay Tây Phương Cực Lạc) do Đức Phật Vô Lượng Quang (Amitabha) chủ trì và là nơi dẫn dắt linh hồn người chết. Bằng cách gọi tên ngài, tín đồ có thể đến được cõi này nhờ lời cầu xin ân sủng từ Bồ Tát Quán Thế Âm làm người cầu thay. Theo nhà nghiên cứu Việt Nam Nguyễn Thế Anh, chính nhà sư Thảo Đường được vua Lý Thánh Tôn đưa về nước trong chuyến viễn chinh sang Chiêm Thành (Đồng Dương), người đã đề xuất quá trình giác ngộ này bằng trực giác và làm tê liệt tâm trí bằng cách niệm danh hiệu Đức Phật. Đây cũng là lý do tại sao Phật tử Việt Nam thường nói A Di Đà (Amitabha) thay vì từ « xin chào » khi gặp nhau.

Sơ đồ bố trí nội thất của chùa chữ Công

Cuối cùng, trên bệ cuối cùng, thấp hơn và rộng hơn hai bệ kia, là tượng Phật Thích Ca Mâu Ni, Đức Phật của Hiện Tại, và hai vị đại đệ tử của ngài: Đại Ca Diếp (Kasyapa) và Tôn Giả A Nan (Ananda). Ở một số chùa, có bệ thứ tư mô tả Đức Phật của Tương Lai, Di Lặc, bên phải là Bồ Tát Phổ Hiền Bồ Tát, biểu tượng của sự thực hành, và bên trái là Bồ Tát Văn Thù Sư Lợi, biểu tượng của trí tuệ. Số lượng tượng được trưng bày trên các bệ thờ khác nhau tùy thuộc vào danh tiếng của ngôi chùa. Phần lớn là nhờ vào sự cúng dường của các tín đồ. Đó là trường hợp chùa Mía có 287 bức tượng, chùa Trăm Gian (Hà Tây) có 153 bức tượng, v.v.Hàng cuối cùng của chùa (hay hậu đường) tương ứng với gian sau và có tính chất đa chức năng. Một số chùa dành nơi này làm nơi ở của người tu hành (tăng đường). Một số chùa khác lại dùng làm nơi thờ cúng các bậc hiền tài, anh hùng như Mạc Đĩnh Chi (chùa Dâu) hay Đặng Tiến Đông (chùa Trăm Gian, Hà Tây). Chính vì vậy mà chúng ta thường nói: tiền Phật hậu Thần (trước Phật, sau Thần). Đây là mô hình ngược lại mà chúng ta thường thấy ở đình chùa: Tiền Thần, Hậu Phật. (trước Phật, sau Phật). Đôi khi có gác chuông hoặc lầu Manes dành cho người đã khuất.

Đôi khi, một căn phòng hoặc bàn thờ được dành riêng cho những người đã đầu tư nhiều tiền vào việc xây dựng hoặc bảo trì chùa. Hầu hết những người cúng dường là phụ nữ, những người có ảnh hưởng đáng kể đến các vấn đề của nhà nước. Đây là trường hợp của công chúa Mía, một trong những phi tần của Chúa Trịnh. Một bàn thờ gần với bàn thờ của Đức Phật đã được dành riêng cho bà tại chùa Mía. Trong chùa Bút Tháp, có một phòng dành riêng để tôn kính những người cúng dường nữ như hoàng hậu Trịnh Thị Ngọc Cúc, các công chúa Lê Thị Ngọc Duyên và Trịnh Thị Ngọc Cơ. Đây là những người đã đóng góp tài chính cho việc xây dựng ngôi chùa này vào thế kỷ 17.

Phía sau chùa, người ta có thể tìm thấy một khu vườn với các bảo tháp hoặc một ao súng. Đây là trường hợp của chùa Phát Tích, với sân sau có 32 bảo tháp với kích thước khác nhau trong vườn. Hình dạng của chữ Đinh (丁) đôi khi được tìm thấy trong bố cục bên trong của chùa Việt Nam. Đây là dấu hiệu thứ tư của chu kỳ thập phân được sử dụng trong lịch Trung Quốc. Đây là trường hợp của chùa Nhất Trụ do vua Việt Nam Lê Đại Hành xây dựng tại Hoa Lư (Ninh Bình), cố đô của Việt Nam, và chùa Phúc Lâm (Tuyên Quang) được xây dựng dưới thời nhà Trần (thế kỷ 13-14).

Chữ mà hầu hết các ngôi chùa Việt Nam thường sử dụng trong thiết kế nội thất là chữ Công (工). Bên cạnh các dãy chính được thiết kế tỉ mỉ bên trong chùa, còn có hai hành lang dài nối tiền đường với hậu đường. Điều này tạo thành một khung hình chữ nhật, bao quanh các dãy chính đã được đề cập trước đó trong chữ Tam. Cách sắp xếp này trông giống chữ Công bên trong chùa, nhưng nhìn từ bên ngoài lại giống chữ Quốc (国), với khung được hoàn thiện bởi hai hành lang dài.

[Return RELIGION]

Champa buddhism (VA, Part 3)

j050807 Art, Chămpa, Histoire, Lịch sử, Religion octobre 16, 2025octobre 16, 2025

Vương triều chàm Indrapura

sanctuaire_dongduong
is compared to what we see today at the Champa Sculpture Museum in Da Nang.

French version
Vietnamnese version

Unfortunately, for an unknown reason, its distinctive attributes were broken and confiscated by the office of the Bình Định People’s Committee, which currently oversees the Đồng Dương site. They have not been returned to the Cham Museum in Đà Nẵng to this day, despite the piece being exhibited to the public for a long time. This is why the bronze statue continues to be the subject of various iconographic interpretations. Based on the information provided (the photos) at the time he conducted an in-depth study in 1984, Jean Boisselier thought it represented Tara. For this, he tried to rely on the idols of Đại Hữu, the codification of the deity’s gestures (mudra), the rank in the Buddhist pantheon, the ornamentation of the adornments (nànàlankàravati), the importance of the gaze, and the existence of the third eye to successfully identify the deity.

Some Vietnamese researchers see in this statue the wife Lakshmi of Vishnu because one of its two distinctive attributes includes the conch (con ốc). For the Vietnamese researcher Ngô Văn Doanh, there is no doubt about the identity of this deity. It is indeed Laksmindra-Lokesvara because, for him, each distinctive attribute has a particular meaning. The lotus symbolizes beauty and purity. As for the conch, it symbolizes the propagation of Buddha’s teaching and awakening after the sleep of ignorance.

This is also the hypothesis long accepted by Vietnamese researchers. According to the Thai specialist Nanda Chutiwongs, this magnificent bronze is called Prajnàpàramità (Perfection of Wisdom). But this does not diminish the conviction of most specialists who, like Jean Boisselier, continue to see in this exceptional bronze the alluring goddess Tara, whose heavy breasts remain one of the prominent features found in her early youth. She is always the consort of the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara.

Recently, in the report on archaeology that took place in 2019 in Hanoi, researchers Trần Kỳ Phương and Nguyễn Thị Tú Anh had the opportunity to redefine the name of the bronze statue, Tara, based on the decorative image of the Buddha found in the statue’s hair, the distinctive attributes (the lotus and the conch) in her two hands, as well as the hand gesture. According to these Vietnamese researchers, Tara is the female incarnation of the meditation Buddha Amoghasiddhi, heir of the historical Buddha Shakyamuni in tantric Buddhism (Tibet).

He was often seated under the fan spread by the seven-headed cobra Mucalinda, known as « Effective Success. » In iconography, he often held a sword in his left hand and a significant gesture recognizable under the term « Abhayamudra (or absence of fear) » in his right hand during his meditation.

That is why the decorative image of the small Buddha, corresponding exactly to what is described, is found on the hair of the bronze statue. Moreover, this statue is green in color all over the body. This is also the identity of the dhyani Buddha Amoghasiddhi. If the lotus symbolizes purity, the conch and the gesture of his hand under the conch correspond well to the dharmacakra mudra, setting in motion the wheel of the Dharma law.

According to researchers Trần Kỳ Phương and Nguyễn Thị Tú Anh, the Yunnan region was once a relay zone intended to facilitate the spread of Tibetan religion and art throughout Southeast Asia via the route called the « Tea and Horse Road. » It was also the place where tantric Buddhism was revered by everyone, from the people to the king, and where the production of bronze bodhisattvas Lokesvara and Tara destined for Southeast Asia was extremely important from the 7th or 8th century onward.

That is why the veneration of the bodhisattvas Lokesvara or Tara was not unusual in Chămpa. Until now, no statue of Lokesvara has appeared or been discovered at Đồng Dương, particularly at the Buddhist monastery, because it was here that King Indravarman II erected a temple to venerate his protective Buddha Lokesvara. He even associated his own name with that of the bodhisattva Lokesvara to give this Buddhist site the name Laksmindra-Lokesvara.

That is why there is no doubt about the existence of the statue of Lokesvara. It is an enigma without explanation to this day. According to researcher Trần Kỳ Phương, it is possible that this statue was made of bronze and is the same size as that of Tara. It must have been placed on the altar at the same time as Tara’s when the honor was first given at that time. Perhaps after this glorification in its honor, it was moved elsewhere or buried in the ground because of the war.

In the second enclosure, there is a long waiting hall (or mandapa) (2) that Henri Parmentier called « the hall with windows » in his description. Then, in the third enclosure (3), there is a large pillared hall, about thirty meters long. It is probably the prayer hall of the monks (vihara) where a majestic imposing statue of Buddha sits, to whom the second altar is dedicated, with a base decorated in relief and surrounded by two haloed attendants. This Buddhist site was recognized by the Vietnamese authorities as a national heritage of the country in May 2001. The blinding destruction caused by American bombing during the war years left only one intact gopura tower at this site, which the local population calls « Tháp sáng » (or tower of light) because it is open to the four directions, letting in the light. Despite this, this site continues to revive a glorious past with its great monastery, which was at one time one of the renowned religious intellectual centers in Southeast Asia. It was here that, after his brilliant victory over Champa in 985, the Vietnamese king Lê Đại Hành (or Lê Hoàn) brought back to Vietnam an Indian monk (Thiên Trúc) who was staying at this monastery. In 1069, the great Vietnamese king Lý Thánh Tôn managed to capture a famous Chinese monk, Thảo Đường, here during his victory over Champa. But it was also here in 1301 that the founding king of the Vietnamese Zen school (Phái Trúc Lâm Yên Tử), Trần Nhân Tôn, accompanied by the Vietnamese monk Đại Việt and received by the talented Cham king Jaya Simhavarman III (Chế Mân in Vietnamese), the future husband of Princess Huyền Trân, spent 9 months meditating in this religious center.

For the French researcher Jean Boisselier, Cham sculpture was always closely linked to history. Notable changes have been observed in the development of Cham sculpture, particularly statuary, in connection with historical events, changes of dynasties, or the relations that Champa had with its neighbors (Vietnam or Cambodia). That is why one cannot ignore that a change of dynasty encourages a creative momentum in the development of Cham sculpture, which is distinguished by a new particular style now known under the name « Đồng Dương. »

Phong cách Đồng Dương

This one cannot go unnoticed due to its following facial features: prominent eyebrows connected in a continuous, sinuous line rising up to the hairline, thick lips with the corners turned up, a mustache sometimes mistaken for the upper lip, and a flat nose, wide from the front and aquiline in profile, a narrow forehead, and a short chin. The absence of a smile is noteworthy. This style continued to develop alongside Mahayana Buddhism in other regions of Champa under the reigns of the immediate successors of the Buddhist king Indravarman II. They continued to particularly venerate Avalokitesvara and to adopt Buddhism as the state religion. This is known from royal inscriptions. This is the case with the Ratna-Lokesvara sanctuary, which King Jaya Simhavarman I, the nephew of King Indravarman II, patronized. This sanctuary has been located at Đại Hữu in the Quảng Bình region. In this sacred place, a large number of Buddhist sculptures have been unearthed. Then around Mỹ Đức in the same province of Quảng Bình, a Buddhist complex was discovered with architectural and decorative similarities to those found at Đại Hữu and Đồng Dương.

Buddhist faith is not absent either in Phong Nha, where some caves used as places of worship still retain their imprint over the years. Finally, a temple dedicated to the deity Mahïndra-Lokesvarà was erected in 1914 in Kon Klor (Kontum) by a chief named Mahïndravarman. There were even two pilgrimages organized by a high dignitary on the orders of King Yàvadvipapura (Java) with the aim of deepening the siddhayatra (or mystical knowledge), as reported by the inscriptions of Nhan Biểu dating from 911 AD.

Cham dynasty of Indrapura

Bouddha statue, Thăng Bình, Quảng Nam

854-898     Indravarman II (Dịch-lợi Nhân-đà-la-bạt-ma)
898-903     Jaya Simharvarman I (Xà-da Tăng-gia-bạt-ma)
905-910     Bhadravarman III (Xà-da Ha-la-bạt-ma)
910-960     Indravarman III (Xà-da Nhân-đức-man)
960-971     Jaya Indravarman I (Dịch-lợi Nhân-di-bàn)
971-982     Paramesvara Varman I (Dịch-lợi Bế- Mĩ Thuế)
982-986     Indravarman IV (Dịch-lợi Nhân-đà-la-bạt-ma)
986-988     Lưu Kế Tông
989-997     Vijaya shri Harivarman II (Dịch-lợi Băng-vương-la)
997-1007   Yan Pu Ku Vijaya Shri (Thất-ly Bì-xà-da-bạt-ma)
1007-1010 Harivarman III (Dịch-lợi Ha-lê-bạt-ma)
1010-1018 Paramesvara Varman II (Thi Nặc Bài Ma Diệp)
1020-1030 Vikranta Varman II (Thi Nặc Bài Ma Diệp)
1030-1044 Jaya Simhavarman II (Sạ Đẩu)

This Buddhist faith began to seriously falter in the face of the invasion of the people from the North (the Vietnamese) who had just been freed from Chinese oppression. These, led by the new king Lê Đại Hành, did not hesitate to sack the capital Indrapura in 982 after the Cham king Parameçvaravarman I (Ba Mĩ Thuế) had clumsily and for an unknown reason detained two Vietnamese emissaries Từ Mục and Ngô Tử Canh and openly supported Ngô Tiên, son of the liberator king of the Vietnamese nation, Ngô Quyền, in the power struggle.

Mahayana Buddhism did not allow the Cham kings to find everything they needed in their struggle against the Vietnamese enemies. They began to doubt the wisdom of this religion when it failed to attract the local population until then. It remained the personal religion of choice for the elites and their Cham kings. They preferred to seek their salvation in the worship of their destructive god Shiva in order to better protect their victories and to enable them to resist, more or less, the foreign invaders (Chinese, Mon, Khmer, and Vietnamese) in the creation, maintenance, and survival of their nation.

Their perpetual belligerence, probably inspired by Shaivism, became a strong argument and a legitimate justification first for the Chinese and then for the Vietnamese to carry out military interventions and gradually annex their territory in the march southward (Nam Tiến).

[Return to CHAMPA]

Bibliographic references

Avalokitesvara: name of a bodhisattva representing the infinite compassion of the Buddha.
Bodhisattva: being destined for enlightenment (Bồ tát)
Dharma: moral law (Đạo pháp)
Lokesvara: lord of the world. Designation of a Buddha or Avalokitesvara.
Mandapa: religious building with columns within the temple enclosure.
Tara: the one who saves. Female counterpart of Avalokitesvara. Highly revered in India and Tibet.
Vishnu: God who maintains the world between its creation by Brahma and its destruction by Shiva.

Champa Buddhism (VA: Part 2)

j050807 Art, Chămpa, Histoire, Lịch sử, Religion octobre 16, 2025octobre 16, 2025

Version vietnamienne
Version française

The discovery of a large number of Mahayana elements, particularly statues of the deity Avalokitesvara, the most popular and revered icon of Mahayana Buddhism, undeniably marks the strengthening of its establishment and doctrine in Champa and testifies to the benevolence of the Cham sovereigns. This special royal consideration allowed it to remain a secondary religion, living for several centuries in the shadow of Hinduism, patiently awaiting its time of glory and influence. It was in the 8th and 9th centuries that, after embracing certain countries such as the Khmer Empire and the kingdoms of Srivijaya and Sailendra, Mahayana Buddhism found its full flourishing in accordance with the arrival of the new ruling Bhrgu lineage in the person of Indravarman II. It is also in the Chinese annals (for example, Tân Đường Thư) that the name « Tchan-Tcheng » (or Campapura (Chiêm Thành in Vietnamese)) appeared for the first time, replacing Huanwang (Hoàn Vương), which had until then been linked to the royal lineage of Prathivindravarman of the South (Kauthara) (Nha Trang).
Having transferred the capital to Indrapura (near Hội An) (or Faifo) in the Amaravati region (Quảng Nam and Quảng Ngãi), Indravarman II showed a particular personal inclination towards Mahayana Buddhism despite maintaining Shaivism as the state religion. It cannot be ignored that King Indravarman II had the opportunity to recall in his royal inscriptions that sovereignty over Champa had come to him solely by the favor of destiny and thanks to merits acquired in many previous existences. It seems that through this teaching, he was more or less attached to the doctrine of Buddhism, particularly to the accomplishment of spreading the Dharma, more than any other Cham king who found his salvation in union with Shiva. According to Georges Coedès, he was designated by Vikrântavarman III, who died without offspring, at the request of the great sages of the kingdom. What is remembered about this king is his Buddhist fervor, his extraordinary wisdom, and his unwavering faith in Lokesvara (Lord of the World). In 875, he had an important Buddhist temple erected in his capital Indrapura on the Đồng Dương site, not far from the Mỹ Sơn sanctuary where the national god Shiva Bhadresvara resided, and he entirely dedicated it to his personal god, Laksmindra-Lokesvara.

We also see in the choice of the name of this temple a practice now used by the Cham sovereigns, always associating the name of the protective deity with that of the donor of the establishment. Despite the primary worship of Shiva for his devastating powers and brilliant victories in protecting the kingdom, the veneration of Lokesvara, representing a Buddha or Avalokitesvara (a bodhisattva), symbolizes not only peace and benevolence but also the protection of this deity over the country and its inhabitants, so much so that Hinduism and Buddhism, although different philosophically and religiously, can now coexist in Champa. According to the French archaeologist Henri Parmentier, the Buddhist site Đồng Dương also seems to encompass the king’s residence located at what is today called « ao vuông » (square-shaped pond). It appears that there is a secret water current that can communicate with a well located one kilometer to the east of the site. The construction of this site demonstrates a desire for innovation in grouping many isolated buildings within an imposing architectural achievement where the presence of Chinese and Indian influences is undeniable.
This is what is discovered in the general plan of this site. In its architecture and sculpture, certain aspects of the borrowing from Chinese art can be seen in terms of monumentality and power, while in the composition of the liturgical scenes and narrative panels there is an impeccable fidelity to the decorative conventions found in the temples of western India.

The construction of this site develops along an east-west axis 1300 meters long, with numerous brick buildings spread across three successive enclosures, each controlled by an entrance pavilion guarded by formidable and terrifying stone guardians (dvarapala). According to Henri Parmentier‘s description, it was in the western half of the first enclosure that he found in 1905 the most important sanctuary (1), probably housing the statue of Laksmindra-Lokesvara to whom the site was dedicated in 875 by King Indravarman II. This main sanctuary is preceded by a tower open to the four cardinal points (thap sang) and surrounded by 9 small temples arranged in a well-ordered layout.
For most Vietnamese researchers, the great masterpiece of bronze art that a peasant found by chance in 1978 while looking to collect some bricks in the ruins near the first enclosure, often referred to as Tara (Phật mẫu Tara), is none other than the statue of Laksmindra-Lokesvara (Quan Âm chuẩn đề). It is indeed Avalokitesvara appearing in a feminine form as a Bodhisattva (Bồ tát Quán Thế Âm) because in both hands, at the time of its discovery, a lotus and a conch were found.[Reading more]

[Champa buddhism: Part 3]

Pô Nagar shrine (Sanctuaire Pô Nagar): Part 2

j050807 Art, Chămpa, Histoire, Sites touristiques octobre 16, 2025octobre 16, 2025

Thánh Mẫu Thiên Y A Na

The main kalan

French version

With its height of 22.8 meters, this main kalan is one of the tallest towers in Cham architecture. Its style is considered an intermediate style between the Mỹ Sơn A-1 style and that of Bình Định (11th-12th century). It is distinguished by a square base and a tapered three-tiered roof. This roof is so ornate and well-preserved to this day that it is impossible not to appreciate its beauty and splendor despite the visible absence of the crest (kailasa or the residence of Shiva). One of the characteristics of this roof is the presence of stone animals (vahana) (goats on the first tier, geese (hamsa) on the second tier, and elephants on the top tier).

The South temple

Despite the deterioration of its roof over time, it continues to maintain its charm and is a very original and unique model in Cham art. It was built by Senapati (1) Par of King Harivarman with the purpose of creating a temple for the Sandhakalinga (a hermaphrodite linga) and to present together Shiva and Bhagavarti in the form of a mukhalinga, half-god, half-goddess.

To respond to this fusion form of these two masculine and feminine deities, a new architectural adaptation appears through this temple. The building has two parts: the square body attached to the vestibule and the domed roof whose composition recalls those of Hưng Thạnh and Bằng An.

The body of this temple is relatively low and has three false doors adorned with six superimposed spearheads whose size increases towards the back. At the level of its pedestal, there are borders in the shape of lotus flowers. The entire base of this kalan is decorated with lotus petals engraved in squares.

Its vestibule is quite long and has a raised pediment.

Thanks to Cham inscriptions, it is known that the Southeast and Northwest towers were built by the governor of Panduranga and commander-in-chief Senapati Par or Parraun of King Harivarman, one for the deity Sri Maladakuthara (another form of Bhagavati) and the other for Sri Vinayaka (Ganesa)(2). The deity Maladakuthara, called the little goddess (yan pu aneh), was presented as the daughter of the great goddess of Pô Nagar.
Southeast Temple
This is also one of the reasons explaining why the Southeast tower was placed next to Bhagavarti (main kalan) and the Sivalinga (South temple).

Its vestibule is quite long and has a raised pediment.

Southeast Temple

ponagar4

This is also one of the reasons explaining why the Southeast tower was placed next to Bhagavarti (main kalan) and the Sivalinga (South temple).

[Return to CHAMPA]

Bibliographic references.

Les ruines Cham. A la recherche d’une civilisation éteinte. Trần Kỳ Phương. Editeur Thế Giới 1993

Po Nagar de Nha Trang. Anne-Valérie Schweyer. Aséanie 14, Décembre 2004, p. 109-140

Pérégrinations culturelles au Champa. Nguyễn Văn Kự- Ngô Văn Doanh. Editeurs EFEO- Thế Giới Publishers 2005.

Văn Hóa Cổ Chămpa. Ngô Văn Doanh. Editeur Nhà Xuất Bản Văn Hóa Dân Tộc 2002.

Sculpture du Champa (VA, Part:1)

j050807 Art, Chămpa, Culture, Histoire octobre 15, 2025octobre 17, 2025

Version française
Version vietnamienne
Part 1

Until today, the exact ethnic origin of the Chams is not known. Some believe that they came from continental Asia and were pushed back along with other populations living in southern China (the Bai Yue) by the Chinese, while others (ethnologists, anthropologists, and linguists) highlighted their island origin through their research work.

Carving a statue is a religious act.

For the latter, the Chams were probably populations from the South Seas (the countries of the archipelagos or those of the Malay Peninsula). Cham oral traditions mentioning connections linking, in legendary times, Champa and Java support this latter hypothesis.
Nicknamed the Vikings of Southeast Asia, the Chams lived along the coasts of central and southern present-day Vietnam. Their main activities were essentially based on trade. They were in contact very early with China and territories as far away as the Malay Peninsula, possibly the coasts of South India.

Being dedicated to religious purposes, Cham sculpture was thus not immune to political repercussions and influences from outside, particularly those from India, Cambodia, and Java. These became the main forces of creation, development, and evolution of styles in their art. According to the French researcher Jean Boisselier, Cham sculpture was closely linked to history. Significant changes were noted in the development of Cham sculpture, especially statuary, with historical events, changes of dynasties, or the relations that Champa had with its neighbors (Vietnam or Cambodia). According to the Vietnamese researcher Ngô Văn Doanh, whenever there was a significant external impact, a new style in Cham sculpture soon appeared.

To illustrate this, it is enough to cite an example: in the 11th-12th centuries, the intensification of violent contacts especially with Vietnam and Cambodia, and the emergence of new concepts related to the foundations of royal power can explain the originality and richness found in the style of Tháp Mắm.

Hình ảnh điêu khắc cổ Chămpa

Being the expression of the Indian pantheon (Brahmanist but especially Shaivist and Buddhist), Cham sculpture rather resorts to the local interpretation of concepts and norms coming from outside with elegance than to servile imitation. It is above all a support for meditation and a proof of devotion. Sculpting a statue is a religious act. Subject to religious norms, the Cham sculptor, with his skillful hands, succeeded in fervently giving the inert stone a soul, a divine representation allowing the conveyance of the religious concept he wished to transmit with faith. Cham sculpture is peaceful. No scenes of horror are depicted. There are only somewhat fanciful animal creatures (lions, dragons, birds, elephants, etc.). No violent or indecent forms are found in the deities. Despite the evolution of styles over history, Cham sculpture continues to maintain the same divine and animal creatures within a constant theme.

Makara
Cham art has succeeded in maintaining its specificity, its own facial expression, and its particular beauty without it being said that it is a servile copy of external models, thus preserving its uniqueness in Hindu sculpture found in India and Southeast Asia. Despite the lack of animation and realism, Cham works were mostly carved from sandstone and much more rarely from terracotta and other alloys (gold, silver, bronze, etc.).

Generally modest in size, they depict religious beliefs and worldviews. They cannot leave us indifferent because they always give us a strong strange impression. This is one of the characteristics of the beauty of Cham art. In Cham sculpture, one finds free-standing sculptures (round-bosses), high reliefs, and low reliefs. A free-standing sculpture is one that can be viewed from all sides to see the sculptor’s work. A high relief is a sculpture with a very prominent relief that does not detach from the background. As for the low relief, it is a sculpture with slight projection on a uniform background. In Cham sculpture, there is a tendency to emphasize the roundness of creatures in the reliefs. Few scenes are depicted in this sculpture. There is a noted lack of connection or coherence in the assembly when otherwise.

The creatures found in Cham sculpture tend to always emerge brilliantly from the space surrounding them. They have something monumental about them. Even when they are grouped together in the works of Mỹ Sơn, Trà Kiệu depicting the daily life of the Chams, they give us the impression that each one remains independent from the others.

One can say that the Cham sculptor focuses solely on the creature he wants to show and deify without ever thinking about excessively unrealistic details and imperfections (such as the too-large hand or the overly bent arm of the dancer from Trà Kiệu, for example) and without closely imitating the original Indian models, which gives this Cham sculpture the « monumental » character not found in other sculptures. This is another particularity found in this Cham sculpture.

The works are not numerous but they testify to a beautiful plastic quality and the expression of various religions. It is difficult to attribute them to a single style. On the other hand, some traits close to the tradition of Indian art from Amaravati can be noted. It was only in the second half of the 7th century, under the reign of King Prakasadharma Vikrantavarman I, that Cham sculpture began to take shape and reveal its originality.

[Sculpture of Champa (Part 2)]
[ Sculpture of Champa (Part 3)]

Palais Kiến Trung (VA)

j050807 Art, Gallery, Histoire, Lịch sử, Vietnam octobre 14, 2025novembre 8, 2025

Kiến Trung Palace

Version vietnamienne
Version française

Located at the northern end of the sacred axis crossing the center of the Purple Forbidden City, the Kiến Trung Palace is an architectural work built by King Khải Định between 1921 and 1923. It is also the first building where there is a combination of European style, including both French architecture and Italian Renaissance architecture, and traditional Vietnamese architecture. The facade of this palace is richly decorated with colorful ceramic motifs and fragments, thus bearing the imprint of the identity of the royal court of the Nguyễn dynasty. On the advice of several French architects and engineers and the Ministry of Public Works, this palace, responding to the aesthetic taste of the time, was completed in just two years, from 1921 to 1923, on the former site where two other architectural works previously known successively as Minh Viễn Lâu (1827) and Du Cửu Lâu (1913) had stood. According to the Hue Monuments Conservation Center, it has been known as Kiến Trung (Kiến « erected » and Trung « straight, no deformation« ).

This palace was considered the residence of the last two kings of the Nguyễn dynasty: Khải Định and Bảo Đại. It was here that King Khai Dinh passed away on November 6, 1925. During the reign of King Bảo Đại, the palace and its interior were renovated in a Western style, including the bathroom. It was also in this palace that Queen Nam Phương gave birth to the crown prince Bảo Long (January 4, 1936). During the Vietnam War, this palace was completely destroyed along with other residences of the Forbidden City. Since 2013, the Huế Monuments Conservation Center has begun launching the restoration project of the Kiến Trung palace. This project was implemented from February 2019 and completed in August 2023 with a total cost of more than 123 billion đồng.

Today, the Kiến Trung palace has become the favorite place for all tourists when visiting the Forbidden Purple City.

Kiến Trung Palace is visible through the long

Trường Lang Corridor

[Return HUE]

The Temple of Literature (Văn Miếu)

j050807 Art, Histoire, Lịch sử, Sites touristiques, Văn Hóa, Vietnam octobre 14, 2025octobre 14, 2025

Temple of littérature

One of the jewels in the heart of Hanoi

(Một bảo vật giữa lòng thủ đô)

Version française

Hiền tài là nguyên khí của quốc gia.
Nguyên khí thịnh thì thế nước mạnh.
Nguyên khí suy thì nước yếu

Talent is the life source of a nation.
A gushing source is the strength of a country.
A drying source weakens it.

The first National University of Vietnam, Quốc Tử Giám, celebrated its 940th anniversary in 2016. It can boast of having preceded by a good century the ancient and prestigious Western universities of Bologna, Oxford, and Paris. Built six years after the Văn Miếu, the Temple of Literature dedicated to Confucius, within the same enclosure, it is among the monuments of the capital that have survived ten centuries of turmoil, civil wars, and foreign invasions. It is contemporary with the Trấn Quốc, Một Cột, and Kim Lien pagodas. The imposing and well-preserved architectural complex in the heart of Hanoi contains very old parts that bear the color of time and the values of a past as rich as it is little known.

Consolidation of the Vietnamese nation

It was in 1076 that the College of the Sons of the Nation, Quốc Tử Giám, was created by King Lý Nhân Tông, of the great Later Lý dynasty. Since the reconquest of independence in 939, the task facing the Vietnamese sovereigns was immense and arduous. The previous dynasties of Ngô, Ðinh, and Earlier Lê had exhausted themselves in internal divisions and wars of conquest at the beginning of the victorious march southward. At the beginning of the 11th century, Vietnam, then renamed Đại Việt, was a nation of original ancient culture in a young state.

Inside still poorly established borders in the South, it remained necessary to strengthen national unity and to overcome the rivalries of great families that threatened to tear the country apart. Outside, it was necessary to maintain good vassal relations with the powerful Chinese neighbor. The Lý showed themselves capable of meeting these challenges. The construction of dikes to address the flooding of the Red River allowed the population to settle and favored the growth of agriculture.

The buying and selling of land were regulated, which led to the emergence of a class of small landowners alongside the great feudal lords. Crafts developed (weaving, goldsmithing, pottery, porcelain), and consequently, trade. On the advice of competent Confucian administrators, the Lý managed to establish a strong centralized government and were able to give legitimacy to the ruling elite. Inspired by the Chinese administrative model, King Lý Nhân Tông organized in 1075 the first examination to recruit mandarins who would exercise power. The following year, he added to the Văn Miếu a higher school to train senior officials, the Quốc Tử Giám. The educational institution, in this tolerant country, existed peacefully right next to the place of worship. Combining a temple dedicated to Confucius and a place of learning into a single complex, this construction is a unique work that highlights the originality of Vietnam compared to China.

Rise of a National Culture

During almost ten centuries of Chinese colonization, the Vietnamese had preserved their cultural originality and assimilated a large part of Chinese culture. The College of the Sons of the Nation therefore spread Confucian humanities: Confucian classics, philosophy, literature, history, and politics. Brilliant candidates memorized the Four Books of Confucianism, but also the history of Vietnam and China. They also studied the rules of poetic composition, learning to prepare all sorts of documents: royal edicts, speeches, mission reports, analyses, essays. The language in use was certainly Chinese or hán; however, the Vietnamese very early on, probably from the 12th century, used a special iconographic script, nôm, to transcribe the popular national language, kinh.

Under Chinese rule, the Vietnamese had learned just what was necessary to become good servants. Until the tenth century, there is no trace of Vietnamese literature. Only legends may have crystallized the collective memory, prevented from freely expressing itself under the pressure of the occupier. The nôm script, derived from Chinese ideographic writing, represented a national and popular reaction to foreign cultural domination. « The soul of a people lives in its language, » said Goethe.

This is an obvious fact in Vietnam. The language transcribed in nôm experienced vigorous growth whenever the national and popular movement gained momentum. After the great Nguyễn Trãi in the 14th century wrote his poems in nôm, the demotic script gained its nobility and no scholar disdained writing in nôm. Another great Vietnamese figure, Nguyễn Huệ, carried out a true revolution by imposing nôm as the official language in administration and mandarin examinations during his reign at the end of the 18th century.

The royal examinations gave a decisive boost to education throughout the country. The National University became for a long time the keystone of the educational system. Schools were established to prepare candidates for the mandarin examinations.

Alongside the large feudal estates existed a well-organized system of rural communes. In many of them, there was a private school alongside public schools, both at the national, provincial, and local levels. The teachers were educated men who had failed the exams, or holders of a baccalaureate, a license, and doctoral laureates who did not want to become mandarins or who were disillusioned with politics. The prestige of knowledge, the respect for teachers and talent had spread over the centuries even into the poorest peasantry.

Which mother did not dream of seeing her sons one day take the difficult exams? The popular saying was deeply ingrained in people’s minds: « Without a teacher, I challenge you to achieve anything. » Literature and public service were not separate in the traditional Vietnamese educational system. Poets contributed to the economic life of their country. Among the most brilliant statesmen and strategists, many were poets. The most famous among them, revered as heroes by the entire population, were:

Trần Hưng Đạo (1213-1300), who triumphed over the Mongols by defeating Kublai Khan
Nguyễn Trãi (1380–1442), a great poet and statesman who ended a new Chinese occupation by the Ming.
Nguyễn Du, a diplomat under the Lê dynasty, who with his verse novel, the Kiều, brought the nôm script to perfection. The latter two are listed by UNESCO in the Pantheon of the Men of Culture of Humanity.
The obstacle-filled journey of a candidate for the royal exams.

Initially, the national exams were held irregularly, depending on the needs of the imperial administration. From 1434 until 1919, the date of the last session, they took place every three years.

When King Lê Thần Tông redefined the rules in the 14th century, the examination took place in two successive levels: regional, then national, each in four phases that could last several months in total. It was necessary to successfully pass each stage in order to qualify for the next. The final test was held at the imperial palace before the king, who personally examined the last group of future doctors.

Some figures provide an eloquent overview of the demands and importance of the royal competitions:

On average, 70,000 to 80,000 candidates competed in the regional competitions.

Between 450 and 6,000 candidates were selected from these to take part in the national exam in Hanoi. They settled for the duration of the tests on the university campus in the city center with their bamboo beds, brushes, and inkwells. In 1777, the National University and the Doctoral Quarter had become an impressive institution comprising 300 classrooms, a huge library, and a publishing house. This vast complex was destroyed by war in 1946. At the end of the final exam at the imperial palace, only 15 candidates were awarded the title of Doctor (tiến sĩ), with an average age of 32. Between 1076 and 1779, the date of the last session held in Thăng Long (Hanoi), 2,313 candidates received the title of Doctor.

1306 of them have their names and ranks engraved in Chinese characters on the 82 steles (41 on each side) in the third space of the Văn Miếu Quốc Tự Giám in Hanoi. These 82 steles preserve the memory of the laureates admitted between 1442 and 1779. It was King Lê Thánh Tông who took the initiative to pay tribute in this way to the great servants of the country. 116 national exams took place during this period, which means that 34 steles are missing, and the reasons why they were not erected or have disappeared are unknown. From 1802, with the reign of Gia Long, the triennial exams were held in Hué until their abolition in 1919. The Quốc Tự Giám became once again the Văn Miếu, Temple of Literature, but was preserved. The tradition of inscribing the Doctors of the Nation on the honor roll was also maintained.

In the Forbidden City of Hué, on the first floor of the Ngọ Môn Gate, their names are clearly mentioned on a large black marble tablet, along with their village and province of origin. The competency exams were coupled with a formidable physical challenge for those from the provinces. The journey to the capital was fraught with dangers. Coming from a distant province, the future graduates sometimes had to travel up to 300 km or more, bringing with them food, a tent, a narrow bamboo bed, and writing materials.

Along the way, they had to fear both highway bandits and attacks from tigers and snake bites. If they managed to overcome all these obstacles, most of them preferred to stay a few years on site to study, in order to ensure the best chances of success.

Popular imagery often depicted the triumphant return of doctors to their native village, announced by a procession of banners and pennants, palanquins, ceremonial objects, preceded by family and friends. Throughout the journey, drums sounded marking the arrival of the child of the country who brought back, along with the doctoral certificate issued by the king, glory to the entire village. The village was henceforth distinguished as « a land of literature (đất văn chương). »

Then the laureate did not fail to bow before the altar of the ancestors and Confucius, before inviting everyone to a sometimes ruinous banquet. During the second millennium B.C. of Vietnam’s history, the intellectual elite emerging from national competitions produced, alongside brilliant strategists, mathematicians, statesmen, philosophers, men of letters, its share of simple bureaucrats and corrupt mandarins. According to Confucian tradition, no woman had access to official education.

The patients were so numerous that Phú Doãn Hospital (the current German-Vietnamese hospital) was soon overwhelmed. It was set up within the grounds of the Văn Miếu Quốc Tử Giám, whose ramparts served as a barrier against contagion. The disease was brought under control thanks to a vaccine developed by Doctor Yersin and the dedication of the doctors. But the Temple was in such a state that the French authorities decided to transform it into a hospital. They began searching for a new location to build the new building.

Aware that he was attacking the Holy See of Vietnamese culture, the representative of the Governor-General of Indochina, Pasquier, first consulted a prominent scholar, and the latter’s conclusion was unequivocal: « Adverse circumstances have soiled the steles and make the people’s hearts bleed. The Nguyễn, by transferring the capital to Huế, respected the integrity of the Temple. If you want to move it, the population will revolt. » A few days later, the French Government allocated a sum of 20,000 piastres to restore the Temple to its original state.
At other times in its troubled history, the population of Hanoi had shown its attachment to this monument, a symbol of its intellectual curiosity, passion for study, and creativity, notably during the fratricidal wars between the Trịnh and the Nguyễn. Nevertheless, in its current state, the Temple of Literature occupies a smaller space than at its peak.

Toàn cảnh nội văn từ
Thử địa vi thủ, thiên thu cần tạo thương lưu phương

Overview of the literary content
Trying the geographical hand, a thousand years need to create a lasting fragrance

Of all the temples dedicated to literature, this one is the high place;
the scent of culture lingers there beyond millennia.

The Temple of Literature (Văn Miếu)

Chu Văn An

Ông tổ của các nhà nho nước Việt

Erection of the laureates’ steles

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Temple Đô (Lý Bát Đế)(English version)

j050807 art, Culture, Gallery, Histoire, Sites touristiques octobre 12, 2025octobre 12, 2025

Temple Đô (Lý Bát Đế)

Vietnamese version

Version française

This Đô Temple was built in the year 1030 during the return of King Lý Thái Tông to celebrate the anniversary of the death of his father Lý Công Uẩn (Lý Thái Tổ). However, this building was completely destroyed during the colonial period. That is why in 1989 the Vietnamese government decided to restore it based on the still preserved historical documents. In front of its entrance gate is a water pavilion erected on a large pond in the shape of a half-moon, which once connected to the Tiêu Tương River that no longer exists today. This historic architectural complex is dedicated to the worship of the 8 kings of the Lý dynasty, which the famous historian Ngô Sĩ Liên described as a dynasty of clemency in the collection entitled « The Complete Historical Records of Đại Việt » (Ðại Việt Sử Ký toàn thư) (1697).

According to the popular saying, in the work « Florilegium of the Thiền Garden (Thiền Uyển Tập Anh) » there is a kệ (or gâtha) alluding to the 8 kings of the Lý dynasty, which is attributed either to the disciple of the patriarch monk Khuôn Việt, Đa Bảo, or to the monk Vạn Hạnh as follows:

The word Bát with the Lý family

Một bát nước công đức
Tùy duyên hóa thế gian
Sáng choang còn soi đuốc
Bóng mất trời lên cao.

A bowl of meritorious water
Flows with causality to transform the world
Brightly shining continues to light the torch
When the shadow disappears, the sun rises behind the mountains.

By implication, this Kệ (or stance) intends to evoke the 8 kings of the Lý dynasty, from the founder Lý Công Uẩn to the last king Lý Huệ Tông, through the word bát which means both bowl and eight in Vietnamese. As for Huệ Tông, his given name is Sảm. Being the combination of two words 日 nhật (sun) and 山 sơn (mountain) in Chinese Han characters, the word Sảm indeed means « the sun hides behind the mountains, » signifying the end or disappearance. This kê proves to be prophetic because Princess Lý Chiêu Hoàng (daughter of King Lý Huệ Tông) ceded the throne to her husband Trần Cảnh, who was none other than King Trần Thái Tông of the Trần dynasty. It can be said that the Lý dynasty had the kingdom by the will of God, but it was also by this will that they lost it.

Lý Bát Đế

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Mausolée Tu Duc (Version vietnamienne)

j050807 Art, Culture, Histoire, tourisme, Vietnam octobre 6, 2025octobre 6, 2025

Khiêm Lăng (謙陵)

Version française

English version

Không giống như các lăng mộ hoàng gia khác của triều Nguyễn, lăng mộ của vua Tự Đức chủ yếu là nơi ẩn náu trong thời gian trị vì của ngài. Đây là lý do tại sao nó không chỉ chứa một cung điện sau này được chuyển đổi thành nơi thờ cúng sau khi ngài qua đời, mà còn có một nhà hát và hai gian nhỏ bằng gỗ đỏ xinh xắn (Du Khiêm và Xung Khiêm) nơi ngài thích ngồi để thư giãn và sáng tác thơ. Lăng mộ này, được xây dựng từ năm 1864 đến năm 1867 bởi ba nghìn binh lính và công nhân, có khoảng năm mươi tòa nhà được bao quanh bởi một bức tường đá và gạch dài 1.500 mét bao phủ diện tích 12 ha. Tự Đức lên ngôi vua vào thời điểm ông phải đối mặt không chỉ với sự phát triển của chủ nghĩa tư bản phương Tây mà còn cả tình trạng bất ổn nội bộ (Chiến tranh châu chấu do nhà thơ Cao Bá Quát lãnh đạo, việc anh trai ông là Hồng Bàng bị lật đổ vào thời điểm ông lên ngôi, vân vân). Để có thể nương tựa, ngài không ngần ngại ra lệnh xây dựng lăng mộ làm nơi nghỉ ngơi trong suốt cuộc đời và là nơi ở cho cuộc sống vĩnh hằng sau này của ngài.

Galerie des photos du mausolée Tự Đức

Trong lăng mộ này, đình Hoa Khiêm là công trình chính nơi vua làm việc, đình Lương Khiêm là nơi vua ở và ngủ. Hai ngôi mộ khác cũng nằm trong khuôn viên lăng mộ. Đó là mộ của hoàng hậu Lê Thiện Anh, vợ vua, và một trong ba người con nuôi của vua, vua Kiến Phúc.

Kiến trúc của lăng mộ này không chỉ phản ánh bản chất lãng mạn của nhà thơ-hoàng đế Tư Đức mà còn phản ánh sự tự do vốn còn thấy thiếu trong các lăng mộ khác cho đến ngày nay. Không có gì ngạc nhiên khi lăng mộ này đã trở thành điểm đến yêu thích của hầu hết du khách nước ngoài và Việt Nam.

Imperial Citadel of Thang Long (Hanoï)

j050807 Art, Histoire, Lịch sử, Sites touristiques, Vietnam octobre 4, 2025novembre 7, 2025

thang_long

Vietnamese version
Version française
Pictures gallery

Due to historical events, the imperial city of Thăng Long seems to fade over time in the collective memory of the Vietnamese, with its remnants hidden within the land of the ancient city of Hanoi. Vietnamese archaeologists had difficulty locating its site despite a series of archaeological excavations initiated at Quần Ngựa and in the geographical area of the Hồ Chí Minh mausoleum, etc., since 1970. It was only in 1998 that they succeeded in locating, in the geographical areas near Hậu Lâu adjacent to Hoàng Diệu street and Bắc Môn (the North Gate from the Nguyễn period), bases of stone pillars and columns with lotus motifs as well as other manufactured objects from the later Lê period. In 2000, they were allowed to carry out another excavation inside Ðoan Môn (the only gate of the forbidden city), which led to the discovery of the royal road (ngự đạo) from the Trần period. With other archaeological excavations undertaken from December 2002 until 2004 near No. 18 Hoàng Diệu street, other remnants dating back to the pre-Thăng Long era (before the 11th century) were found.

Thanks to the picks of Vietnamese archaeologists, the imperial city of Thăng Long is beginning to reveal its secrets and politics, administration, and culture over nearly thirteen centuries (under the successive dynasties of Lý, Trần, and later Lê). The architectural ruins (foundations, pillar bases, sections of royal brick roads, water drainage systems, wells, etc.) exposed in the imperial city of Thăng Long undoubtedly testify to the architectural complexity of the palaces of that era, whose existence has been confirmed by the discovery and presence of several types of high-quality ceramics with aesthetically sophisticated motifs, including ceramics from the Lê period bearing Chinese characters meaning Quan (official) or Kính (respectful) and motifs of five-clawed dragons and phoenixes.
Imperial city map

map_thang_long

These ceramics were reserved exclusively for kings and queens. Thanks to the archaeological excavation, the following conclusion was reached: the architectural remains from the Lý-Trần-Lê periods found had been stacked on the layer from the Chinese Zong Pinh-Đai La period (Tống Bình-Đai La) (7th-9th century).

This observation does not call into question the importance given until now to the Royal Edict (Chiếu dời đô) that the founder Lý Công Uẩn of the Lý dynasty, later known as Lý Thái Tổ, promulgated in the spring of 1010 (Canh Tuất) regarding the transfer of the capital. After eliminating the Vietnamese king Lê Long Ðĩnh of the earlier Lê dynasty (Tiền Lê), Lý Thái Tổ realized that after a few years of reign, Hoa Lư, the capital of Vietnam built in a mountainous region, was too difficult to access. It was impossible to ensure prosperity there and to secure the destiny of Vietnam (tính kế cho con cháu muôn vạn đời). The capital had to be transferred to Ðại La, the former capital of the proconsul of the Chinese Tang dynasty, Kao Pien (Cao Biền), during the period of Chinese domination.

Hoàng thành Thăng Long

This city could protect the population from floods and inundations with its fairly high and well-exposed terrain, but it was also a location corresponding to the favorable orientation of mountains and rivers and to the position of the coiled dragon and the sitting tiger. To avoid awakening popular unrest, he did not hesitate to resort to the credulity of his people, as would later be done by the advisor to the hero Lê Lợi, Nguyễn Trãi, in the liberation struggle against the Ming. He spread a rumor that he had seen a golden dragon emerge from Ðại La and fly into the sky in his dream.

That is why Đại La was called Thăng Long (The Rising Dragon). Like other kings, he could have imposed his will on his people by decree, but he preferred to submit to the will of Heaven and the aspirations of the people, deliberately using their superstition to accomplish a great work for an independent Vietnam. His reign was known as « Thuận Thiên » (Following the Will of Heaven).

Orphaned, raised in a pagoda, and educated from a young age by the learned monk Vạn Hạnh, growing up in his shadow, he soon became a great king of Vietnam because he was imbued with Buddhist thought during his reign. In him, one finds not only wisdom, dialogue, insight, and tolerance but also the undeniable will to contribute to the strengthening of the Vietnamese nation (a highly centralized administrative system, a fairly flexible tax regime, Buddhism accepted as the state religion, priority given to education, etc.). It was under him that Vietnam was recognized for the first time as the kingdom of Annam. The authors of the work « The Complete Historical Records of Đại Việt » (Ðại Việt Sử Ký toàn thư) continually praised the years of Lý Công Uẩn’s reign. His dynasty was later described by the Vietnamese historian Ngô Thì Sĩ as a dynasty of clemency (Triều Lý nhân Ái).

Decorative sheet attached to the tile

Thanks to Việt Sử lược (The Brief History of the Vietnamese State in the 14th Century), we know that in the plan of the imperial city of Thăng Long built in 1010 by King Lý Thái Tổ, there was in the middle of this city the Càn Nguyên palace, later called Thiên An and finally renamed Kinh Thiên (Audience Hall) by King Lê Thái Tổ. Around this palace, to the east, there was the Tập Hiền palace and the Phi Long gate; to the west, the Giảng Vũ palace and the Ðan Phượng gate; to the south, the Cao Ðiện palace and the Long Trì veranda with its corridors on both sides; and to the north, the Long An and Long Thụy palaces, not forgetting to mention to the west and east of these the Nhật Quang and Nguyệt Minh palaces. Additionally, there were the Hưng Thiên pagoda and the Sao Ngũ Phượng tower. In 1011, the Thái Thanh palace, the Vạn Tuế pagoda, and the Trần Phúc Buddhist library were constructed. (Việt Sử lược, translated and annotated by Trần Quốc Vượng pp 70-71).

Based on the plan of the imperial city from the Lê period, Vietnamese archaeologists have delineated this city as follows: the north around Phan Ðình Phùng street, the south located at Trần Phú street, the west beyond Ông Ích Khiêm street, and the east around Thuốc Bắc street. The area of this site is estimated to be about 140 hectares during the Lê period. However, it would be slightly smaller under the Lý and Trần dynasties. On the other hand, the Hanoi citadel does not exceed 100 hectares under the Nguyễn dynasty.

During archaeological excavations, several architectural materials decorated with extremely varied themes are found. The decorative motifs include lotuses, chrysanthemums, or heads of mythical animals with rough and fierce features during the Đại La period (7th – 9th century). Then, under the period of the Đinh and Early Lê dynasties (Tiền Lê), there are lotuses and pairs of mandarin ducks, and finally, under the Lý dynasty, through dragons, phoenixes, leaves, and flowers, the art of decoration reaches the peak of beauty and perfection. Despite maintaining the basic elements of decoration from the Lý dynasty, this art tends to regain its simplicity and solidity under the Trần dynasty. As for the Later Lê period, there is a significant change in the simplicity of tile and brick decoration, along with a batch of new themes added compared to the periods of the Lý and Trần dynasties.

The remains and manufactured objects found in the imperial city of Thăng Long undeniably bear witness to a national culture and local originality because, besides the dragon of the Lý dynasty with its well-decorated crest not found in Chinese dragon motifs, one can discover the roofs of buildings from the Lý-Trần period covered with tiles adorned either with decorative leaves or with figurines of dragons or phoenixes that are not commonly seen in the royal palaces of neighboring countries. It can be said without hesitation that this site is part of a cultural heritage of invaluable worth for Vietnam, particularly for the city of Hanoi.

Listed as a World Cultural Heritage site, the imperial city of Thăng Long has become today a must-visit site when one has the opportunity to visit the capital, Hanoi.

Photos gallery of imperial city Thăng Long