Culture

Culture des pays d’Asie du Sud Est, de la Chine ou du monde

Policy of rapprochement with Việtnam

j050807 Culture, Histoire, Văn Hóa, Vietnam

 

Version vietnamienne

Version française

The hospitality that Rama I extended to Nguyễn Ánh later served as the basis for the development of the future relationship between the two countries. It is not unrelated to Nguyễn Ánh’s careful conduct in seeking an appropriate solution to manage the dual suzerainty over Laos and Cambodia with the Thais. According to the Vietnamese researcher Nguyễn Thế Anh, these countries were considered at that time as children raised together by Siam and Vietnam, the former arrogating the title of father and the latter the title of mother. This dual dependence is known in the Thai language as « song faifa. » According to Siamese sources, Nguyễn Ánh sent six times from Gia Định to Bangkok silver and gold trees, a sign of allegiance between 1788 and 1801. (2). In a letter addressed to Rama I before his return to Gia Định, Nguyễn Ánh agreed to be placed under the protectorate of Siam in case he succeeded in restoring his power. Did Đại Nam (the former name of Vietnam) accept being a mandala state?

There are several reasons to refute this hypothesis. First, Đại Nam was not under the influence of Theravada Buddhism and did not have the Indianized culture as was the case with Cambodia and Laos because the religious role plays an important part in the mandala defined by the researcher O. Wolter. Siam had so far tried to extend its influence and control in regions where the Thais were more or less established and where the Indianized culture was visible.

This is not the case for Vietnam. Chakri and his predecessor Taksin had already failed in this endeavor in Cochinchina, which was nevertheless a new land because there was a significant Vietnamese colony with a different culture. Vassalage seems unlikely. The truth is never known, but one can rely on the fact that to acknowledge the benefits of Ralma I, Nguyễn Ánh could adopt this understandable behavior which was never incompatible with his temperament and especially with his Confucian spirit, in which ingratitude was not a part.

One always finds in him the gratitude and kindness that cannot later be refuted with Pigneau de Béhaine, who devoted much effort to convincing him to convert to Catholicism. During his reign, there was no persecution of Catholics, which can be interpreted as a recognition of Pigneau de Béhaine. From this point of view, one can see in him the principle of humanity (đạo làm người) by honoring both the gratitude towards those who protected him during 25 years of hardships and the revenge against those who killed all his relatives and family. (debt must be repaid, vengeance must be taken)

At the time of his enthronement in 1803 in Huế, Nguyễn Ánh received a crown offered by King Rama I but immediately returned it because he did not accept being treated as a vassal king and receiving the title that the Siamese King Rama I was accustomed to granting to his vassals. This behavior disproves the accusation that has always been made against Nguyễn Ánh.

For some Vietnamese historians, Nguyễn Ánh is a traitor because he brought in foreigners and gave them the opportunity to occupy Vietnam. The Vietnamese expression « Đem rắn cắn gà nhà » (Introducing the snake to bite the home chicken) is often attached to Nguyễn Ánh. It is unfair to label him a traitor because, in the difficult context he was in, there was no reason not to act as he did as a human being when he was at the brink of despair. Probably the following expression « Tương kế tựu kế » (Combining a stratagem of circumstance) suits him better, although there is a risk of playing into the hands of foreigners. It should also be recalled that the Tây Sơn had the opportunity to send an emissary to Rama I in 1789 with the aim of neutralizing Nguyễn Ánh using the stratagem (Điệu hổ ly sơn (Luring the tiger away from the mountain)), but this attempt was in vain due to Rama I’s refusal. (3)

Being intelligent, courageous, and resigned like the king of the Yue Gou Jian (Cẫu Tiển) from the Spring and Autumn period (Xuân Thu), he should have known the consequences of his act. There is not only Gia Long but also thousands of people who accepted to follow him and bear the heavy responsibility of bringing foreigners into the country to counter the Tây Sơn. Are they all traitors? This is a thorny question to which it is difficult to give an affirmative answer and a hasty condemnation without first having a sense of fairness and without being swayed by partisan opinions when one knows that Nguyễn Huệ remains the most adored hero by the Vietnamese for his military genius.

Disappointed by Gia Long’s refusal, Rama I showed no sign of resentment but found justification in the cultural difference. In Rama I, we find not only wisdom but also understanding. He wanted to deal henceforth on an equal footing with him. This equal treatment can be interpreted as a « privileged » bilateral relationship between the elder and the younger in mutual respect. Each of them should know that they needed the other even if it was an alliance of circumstance. Their countries were respectively threatened by formidable enemies, Burma and China.

Their special relationship did not fade over time because Rama I fell in love in the meantime with Nguyễn Ánh’s sister. It is not known what became of her (his wife or his concubine). However, there was a love poem that Rama I dedicated to her and which continued to be sung even in the 1970s during the annual royal boat procession.

As for Nguyễn Ánh (or Gia Long), during his reign, he avoided military confrontation with Thailand over the thorny Cambodian and Laotian issues. Before his death, Gia Long repeatedly reminded his successor Minh Mạng to perpetuate the friendship he had managed to establish with Rama I and to consider Siam as a respectable ally in the Indochinese peninsula (4). This was later justified by Minh Mạng’s refusal to attack Siam at the request of the Burmese.

According to researcher Nguyễn Thế Anh, in continental Southeast Asia, out of about twenty important principalities around 1400, only three kingdoms remained that managed to establish themselves at the beginning of the 19th century as regional powers, among which were Siam and Đại Việt, one advancing eastward and the other southward at the expense of the Hinduized states (Laos, Cambodia, Champa). This conflict of interests intensified increasingly after the death of Rama I and Nguyễn Ánh.

Their successors (Minh Mạng, Thiệu Trị on the Vietnamese side and Rama III on the Siamese side) were entangled in the problem of succession of the Cambodian kings who kept fighting among themselves and seeking their help and protection. They were henceforth guided by a policy of colonialism and annexation which led them to confront each other militarily twice in 1833 and 1841 on Cambodian and Vietnamese territories and to find at the end of each confrontation a compromise agreement in their favor and to the detriment of their respective protégés.

The temporary alliance is no longer taken into account. The rivalry, which was becoming increasingly visible between the two competing countries Đại Nam and Siam, now rules out any rapprochement and any possible alliance. Even their policies are completely different, one aligning with the Chinese model to avoid any contact with Western colonialists and the other with the Japanese model to advocate the opening of borders.

The Khmer capital Phnom Penh was at one time occupied by the Vietnamese army of General Trương Minh Giảng while the regions of Western Cambodia (Siem Reap, Battambang, Sisophon) were in the hands of the Thais. According to the French historian Philippe Conrad, the king of Cambodia was considered a mere governor of the king of Siam. The royal insignia (golden sword, crown seal) were confiscated and held in Bangkok. The arrival of the French in Indochina put an end to their dual suzerainty over Cambodia and Laos. It allowed the Cambodian and Laotian protégés to recover part of their territory in the hands of the Vietnamese and the Thais. Đại Nam under Emperor Tự Đức had to face the French colonial authorities who had annexed the six provinces of Nam Bộ (Cochinchina).

Thanks to the foresight of their kings (particularly that of Chulalongkorn or Rama V), the Thais, relying on the rivalry policy between the English and the French, managed to maintain their independence at the cost of territorial concessions (the Burmese and Malay territories occupied were returned to the English and the Laotian and Khmer territories to the French). They chose a flexible foreign policy (chính sách cây sậy) like the reed that adapts to the wind. It is no coincidence to see the sacred union of the three Thai princes at the dawn of the Thai nation in 1287 and the submission to the Sino-Mongol troops of Kublai Khan.

It is this synthetic policy of adaptation that allows them to stay away from colonial wars, always side with the victors, and exist today as a flourishing nation despite their late emergence (dating from the early 14th century) in mainland Southeast Asia.

Pictures of Venice of the East (Vọng các)

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(1) Bùi Quang Tùng: Professeur, membre scientifique de EFEO. Auteur de plusieurs ouvrages sur le Vietnam.
(2) P.R.R.I, p. 113.
(3) Pool, Peter A.: The Vietnamese in Thailand, p 32, note 3.

Latent conflicts with Vietnam

j050807 Culture, Histoire, Văn Hóa, Vietnam


Vietnamese version
French version

There are victories and defeats on both sides. Leading an army of 20,000 men and a fleet, Taksin succeeded in driving out, after a ten-day siege, Mo Shi-Lin (Mạc Tiên Tứ in Vietnamese), the son of Mạc Cửu, from Hà Tiên. He was a significant Chinese ally of the Nguyễn lords and the protector of the son of the last king of the Ayutthaya dynasty, Chao Chuy (Chiêu Thúy). The latter continued to be one of the potential contenders for the crown and a daily concern for Taksin. Due to his military setbacks at Châu Đốc and in the Sadec region, Taksin was forced to accept the peace treaty offered by Mạc Thiên Tứ and to abandon Hà Tiên in ruins in exchange for the return of Prince Chiêu Thúy, the release of Mạc Thiên Tứ’s daughter who was captured at the fall of Hà Tiên, and the maintenance on the Cambodian throne of a pro-Thai king named Ang Non.

Upon his return, Chiêu Thúy was executed along with his brother who was captured in Cambodia. As for Lord Nguyễn Phúc Thuần (later known as Duệ Tông), troubled by the rebellion of the « Tây Sơn brothers (Western Peasants), » he was forced to endorse this agreement and temporarily allow the Thais free rein in their territorial expansion policy over Laos and Cambodia. But the truce was short-lived for Mạc Thiên Tứ because in the meantime, he was pursued by the Tây Sơn who had succeeded in taking Gia Định (or Saigon) in 1776 and capturing Lord Nguyễn Phúc Thuần in Cà Mau. He had to seek refuge with his family and subordinates with Taksin in Thonburi (Thailand). However, the latter, obsessed and consumed by so much suspicion and distrust, ended up executing his family and subordinates, among whom was Prince Tôn Thất Xuân. To preserve his dignity and honor, Mạc Thiên Tứ committed suicide in September 1780 by swallowing a gold coin. Taksin’s distrust became increasingly overwhelming to the point where it turned into a mental illness accompanied by paranoid and tyrannical behavior.

It is one of the common traits of great politicians (Ts’ao Ts’ao (Tào Tháo) of the Three Kingdoms, Qin Shi Huang Di (Tần Thủy Hoàng) for example). It is this mistrust that later led him to imprison his close associates, particularly the family of his son-in-law Chakri, who was engaged in a military campaign in Cambodia against the Vietnamese of the young prince Nguyễn Ánh. Chakri (the future King Rama I) was forced to make a pact with Nguyễn Ánh’s lieutenants, Nguyễn Hữu Thùy and Hồ văn Lân. They sent him a knife, a sword, and a flag as a sign of their support against Taksin. Having managed to return in time when a coup d’état overthrew the latter, the Siamese general Chaophraya Mahakasatsuk (or Chakri) thus became King Rama I and the founder of the Chakri dynasty.

His advent allowed the closure of the Thonburi dynasty and its replacement by the new dynasty with the transfer of the capital to Bangkok. It was here that King Rama I attempted to restore the Ayutthaya style through his royal palace (Bangkok). The establishment of the new capital did not correspond to a renewal of Siamese art. Rama I was interested in continuing the unfinished work of King Taksin the Great in the march eastward. He did not hesitate to mount a military expedition to assist Crown Prince Nguyễn Ánh in his struggle against the Tây Sơn. Unfortunately, this Vietnamo-Siamese expedition was crushed in 1783 in the Rạch Gầm-Xoài Mút canals of today’s Tiền Giang province by the strategist king Nguyễn Huệ. Of the Siamese army initially composed of at least 50,000 men and 300 junks, only 2,000 men managed to pass through Cambodia to return to Thailand.

Taking advantage of the geographical unfamiliarity of the terrain (địa lợi) and the military underestimation of the enemies, Nguyễn Huệ avoided a frontal engagement at Sadec and quickly succeeded in thwarting the Siamese invasion in the canals near Mỹ Tho. Nguyễn Huệ needed a swift victory because he knew that the Trịnh in Northern Vietnam could take advantage of this opportunity to invade Qui Nhơn in central Vietnam.

Hunted like a wild beast and plunged into the abyss of sadness, Nguyễn Ánh was forced to exile himself to Bangkok, accompanied by about thirty mandarins and approximately 200 soldiers for a short period (from 1785 to 1787). He was later joined by 5,000 soldiers under General Nguyễn Huỳnh Đức. According to Vietnamese professor Bùi Quang Tùng (1), many refugees preferred to stay in Thailand and marry Siamese women.

Policy of rapprochement with Việtnam

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Art of Sukothai (Version anglaise)

j050807 Art, Culture, Lịch sử, Văn Hóa


French version

Vietnamese version

With the first great Thai kingdom of Sukhothai, a new civilization emerged that knew how to take advantage of indigenous culture under the impetus of an exceptional and equally remarkable personality, King Rama Khamheng. For Georges Coedès, the Thais were remarkable assimilators. Instead of destroying everything that belonged to the former masters (Mon-Khmers) as the Vietnamese did during the conquest of Champa, the Thais tried to appropriate it and rediscover themes in the old Mon-Khmer repertoires to create a new, unique style, allowing local traditions to show through in architecture (chedis) and statuary (Buddhas). Mahayana was henceforth abandoned in favor of Theravada Buddhism, to which Thai aesthetics were entirely devoted. This obviously drew its iconographic and plastic formulas from Khmer art and that of Dvaravati (Mon).

The blossoming of Sukhothai art testifies to a will for innovation and remarkable vitality despite certain Sinhalese, Burmese, and Khmer influences. This is seen in the great creation of Buddha iconography. These Buddhas, represented in human form, were sculpted according to very precise rules that Thai artists had to meticulously respect. According to Bernard Groslier, there is a slight exaggeration in the beauty of these works in order to accentuate stylization and show the originality of a new and dynamic society. The excessive elongation found in the arms and ears and the excessive deformation of the upper bun clearly reflect the lack of realism.

Despite this, the Buddhist sculpture of Sukhothai undoubtedly testifies to an entirely original art and a period when the Thai nation needed a cultural and religious identity and a distinct personality illustrated by the example found in the creation of the Walking Buddha. Its graceful form cannot go unnoticed and manages to penetrate the Thai people. A fluidity is found in the movement of this Buddha. Its appearance is both light and serene. Its oval-shaped head, perfectly arched eyebrows in a semicircle extended by a long aquiline nose, its curly hair topped with a long flame (uṇīsa) (Sinhalese tradition), its mouth surrounded by a double line (Khmer tradition), its clothes clinging to the body are the characteristic features of the Buddhist art of Sukhothai.

Despite this, the Buddhist sculpture of Sukhothai undeniably bears witness to an entirely original art and a period when the Thai nation needed a cultural and religious identity and a distinct personality illustrated by the example found in the creation of the Walking Buddha. Its graceful form cannot go unnoticed and manages to penetrate the Thai people. A fluidity is found in the movement of this Buddha. Its appearance is both light and serene. Its oval-shaped head, perfectly arched semicircular eyebrows extended by a long aquiline nose, its curly hair topped with a long flame (unîsa) (Sinhala tradition), its mouth surrounded by a double line (Khmer tradition), its clothes clinging to the body are the characteristic features of the Buddhist art of Sukhothai.

Under the reign of Rama Khamheng (or Rama the Brave), a new society was formed from the Mon-Khmer heritage. This society found its administrative and social model from the Mongols. The Thai script was created and based on the Khmer cursive script, which had its distant origin in southern India. Theravada Buddhism was adopted as the state religion. Despite this, animism continued to persist, as evidenced by the cult of the spirit of the land mentioned by Rama Khamheng. He established on a hill near Sukhothai an altar dedicated to a spirit named Phra Khapung Phi, superior to all other spirits to ensure the prosperity of the kingdom. It was his responsibility to honor this cult every year. This same mindset was also seen at the beginning of the 20th century in Vietnam with the ritual ceremony of Nam Giao (Huế) celebrated by the emperor, as being the Son of Heaven, he was supposed to ask each year for the protection and blessing of Heaven for the country. (Similarly in China with the Temple of Heaven (Thiên Đàn) in Beijing).

It is not surprising to still find nowadays this tradition, this idea of the superior spirit in the Emerald Buddha (or Phra Keo Morakot), the palladium of Thailand and protector of the Chakri dynasty in the chapel of the royal palace in Bangkok. For Bernard Groslier, the parallelism is not gratuitous: the Thais belong to the primitive world of Chinese thought. Questions arise from this comparison because one cannot ignore that, similar to the Vietnamese, the Thais were part of the Cent Yue group, most of whose ethnicities were animists and belonged to the agricultural world. They were accustomed to honoring the cult of the spirits of the land, agriculture, or the village before coming under Chinese influence. Rama Khamheng succeeded in establishing diplomatic relations with Kublai Khan’s China. He encouraged the arrival and settlement of Chinese artisans in the capital. With their expertise, the kingdom of Sukhothai soon became known for its famous Sawankhalok ceramics.

Kingdom of Ayutthaya

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Malaisie (Mã Lai)

j050807 Culture, Gallery, Histoire, Lịch sử

  • Kuala Lumpur
  • Malacca
  • Putrajava
  • Batu

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New Year Bính Ngọ

j050807 Culture, Lịch sử, Văn Hóa, Vietnam

New Year Bính Ngọ (11 February 2026)

Version française
Version vietnamienne

The word “Tết” is derived from the word “tiết”, which in the Sino-Vietnamese dictionary means the bamboo stalk (or đốt tre) in the strict sense or in the broader sense the period or space of time determined according to the climate in the year. In Vietnam, there are numerous Tết such as Tết Trung Thu (or mid-autumn festival), Tết Thanh Minh (festival of the dead), Tết Đoan Ngọ (or purge festival) etc. but the most important Tết is Tết Nguyên Đán ( 節元旦) or Tết Cả in Vietnamese culture.

For the majority of Vietnamese, Tet evokes a magic period of the year when everyone forgets his or her misfortune or misery during the previous year. It is the start of the new year in the lunar calendar. Rich or poor, young or old, everyone is going to celebrate it with solemnity and cheerfulness. It is the moment to dream and to recover hope.

It is also the period when peasants let their fields take a break while hoping to have better crops next year thanks to the renewal of nourishing nature. That is why in one of the Vietnamese folk songs, the following verses are found:
  
Một năm là mười hai kỳ
Em ngồi em tính có gi` chẳng ra
Tháng giêng ăn Tết ở nhà
Tháng hai rỗi rãi quay ra nuôi tầm

Twelve months make a year,
You can count them with no difficulty.
The first month, you stay home enjoying Tet,
Free the second month, you can turn raising silk worms.
It is also the festival of friendship but above all that of the cult of ancestors and genies.

According to historians, the celebration of this festival goes back to the Han Chinese domination (i.e. in the first century of Christian era). The preparation of this festival is very meticulous and requires long days in advance. Seven days before Têt, there is the farewell ceremony to the genies of the Kitchen (Ông Táo). The latter comes back to earth on the night of the thirtieth day of the twelfth month of the lunar year. In the village, in front of each house is set up a bamboo pole (or cây nêu) possibly reaching several meters.

One finds at the top of this pole offerings, votive papers and terra cotta tablets, while at its foot there is a design of a crossbow whose point is directed toward the outside. It is an old Buddhist tradition that helps prevent demons and ghosts from entering. It is also in the village that one finds again the ambiance of festival with the preparations of Tet. It is also on this occasion that the whole family is gathered from the youngest to the oldest around the cooking pot to steam cook the sweet rice cake.

Year of the fire horse 

Tet_nouvel_an

According to writer Phạm Huỳnh, Tết is the sanctification, glorification, exaltation of family religion and ancestor worship. It’s also when the whole family, from the youngest to the oldest, gathers around the cooking pot to steam the rice cake. On this day, the whole family comes together under the eye of the ancestors, whose tablets are uncovered on the carefully cleaned and richly decorated altar. On New year’eve (or đêm giao thừa), the head of the family lights incense sticks on the altar to invite the souls of the ancestors to spend Tet with the living. It is an occasion for the head of the family to pass on to his children the tradition of the cult of ancestors and teach them the rites of the cult.

Everyone, from the youngest to the oldest takes turn to bow down before the altar, each having a moving idea about the dead and imploring their help for the realization of deep wishes. One finds on the altar during the days of Tết not only refined dishes, hand picked fruits, cakes, especially the sweet rice cake and cups of tea or water, but also branches of flowering peach tree. The latter are chosen in such a way that they bloom during the festival of Tết.

Tet is also the festival of children. They put on the most beautiful of their dresses and play together in the fireworks on the street. They receive from adults a red envelope containing a bill or a coin that would bring them luck for the whole year

As for adults, they go in procession in pagodas and try to know their future by pulling each a divinatory stick. It is also the occasion to obey certain elementary rules that all Vietnamese must know: banning bad words, toning down all quarrels, not touching broom, avoiding to be the first to show up at someone’s house on the first day of the year.

It is also the occasion to see the unicorn dance ( Múa Lân ) or the Dragon dance. This animal whose head is magnificently decorated and whose body is carried by several dancers, waves to the rhythm of the sound of drum. It is always accompanied by another smiling and portbellied dancer wearing a saffron robe (Ông Ðịa). It is the dance-combat between men and animals, between the Good and the Evil that is always ended up with the triumph of men over animals.

The festivities of Tết last for a week or even a month in certain villages. But because of the difficulties of life, it is the habit nowadays to stop working only during the first three days of the years.

Each year is symbolized by a cycle of 12 animals:

Tý, Sủu, Dần, Mẹo, Thìn, Tị, Ngọ, Mùi, Thân, Dậu, Tuất , Hợi

Rat, Buffalo, Tiger, Cat, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, Pig

From his or her birth each individual possesses an astral sign which is symbolized by the symbol animal of the year of birth.

Moreover, each symbol animal is associated with one of the five celestial elements  (Wu Xing)(ou Ngũ Hành in Vietnamese):

Thủy, Hỏa, Mộc, Kim, Thổ
Water, Fire, Wood, Metal and Earth.

chosen among the names of 10 heavenly stems grouped in pairs  (Jia, yi, Bing, ding, Wu, ji, geng,xin, ren, gui))(or Hệ Can in vietnamese  Giáp, Ất, Bính, Đinh, Mậu, Kĩ, Canh, Tân, Nhâm, Qúi: [Giáp, Ất] =Wood (Mộc), [Bính, Đinh]=Fire (Hỏa), [Mậu,Kĩ]=Earth (Thổ), [Canh, Tân]=Metal (Kim), [Nhâm,Qúi]=Water (Thủy))

That is why this year is the year of Fire horse. It only comes back every sixty years (i.e. 1906, 1966, 2026, 2086 etc.). In the Annals of our history, there were two Tets the Vietnamese people remember for a long time: it was the Tet that allowed emperor Quang Trung to reconquer our capital Hànội in 1788 against the Qing and the Tết Mậu Thân in 1968 in South Vietnam. 

For every Vietnamese, Tết is an infinitely happy period that has the advantage of being renewed every year, allowing them to live for a few days in a kind of elation and satisfaction despite the ups and downs of life. Even poor people want to have a radiant life for a new Tết like the famous poet Trần Tế Xương in his poem entitled: The New Year.

Friend, don’t think that in this Tết I’m poor!
I haven’t yet taken the money out of my safe
My chrysanthemum wine, they’re slow to bring it;
And lotus tea, the price to be debated,
For the sweet cakes, I feared they would run
In the heat, as well as the pork pies.
Too bad, let’s wait until next year
Friends, don’t think I’m poor this Tet!

   Traditions maintained in occasion of New Year 

Nouvel an Bính Ngọ

j050807 Culture, Lịch sử, Traditions, Vietnam

Nouvel an Bính Ngọ (11 février 2026)

Version vietnamienne

Version anglaise

Le mot «Tết»  est issu du mot « tiết » qui signifie dans le dictionnaire sino-vietnamien le tronçon  de bambou (ou đốt tre) au sens strict  ou au sens large  la période ou un espace de temps déterminé en fonction du climat dans l’année.

Au Vietnam, il existe de nombreux Tết  tels que Tết Trung Thu (ou fête de la mi -automne), Tết Thanh Minh (fête des morts), Tết Đoan Ngọ (ou fête de purge) etc. mais le Tết le plus important est Tết Nguyên Đán ( 節元旦) ou Tết Cả dans la culture vietnamienne.

C’est aussi la période où les paysans laissent reposer leurs champs tout en espérant avoir de meilleures récoltes l’année prochaine grâce au renouveau de la nature nourricière. C’est pourquoi dans l’une des chansons populaires vietnamiennes on trouve les vers suivants:

Một năm là mười hai kỳ
Em ngồi em tính có gi` chẳng ra
Tháng giêng ăn Tết ở nhà
Tháng hai rỗi rãi quay ra nuôi tầm

Une année comporte douze mois
Assis, je peux les compter sans difficultés
Au premier mois je reste à la maison pour fêter le Têt
Au deuxième mois je peux commencer avec mon temps disponible, l’élevage des vers à soie.

C’est aussi la fête de l’amitié mais surtout celle du culte des ancêtres et des génies. D’après les historiens, la célébration de cette fête remonte à l’époque de la domination chinoise des Han (au premier siècle de l’ère chrétienne). La préparation de cette fête est très minutieuse et nécessite de longs jours à l’avance. Sept jours avant le Têt, il y a la cérémonie d’adieu au génie du Foyer (Ông Táo). Celui-ci revient sur terre dans la nuit du Têt au trentième jour du douzième mois lunaire. Dans le village, devant chaque maison est dressée une perche de bambou (ou Cây Nêu) pouvant atteindre plusieurs mètres. 

On trouve sur cette perche des offrandes, des papiers votifs et des tablettes en argile cuite vibrant avec sonorité au gré du vent pour éloigner les esprits. C’est une vieille tradition bouddhique  permettant d’interdire l’accès aux démons et aux fantômes. C’est aussi dans le village qu’on retrouve l’ambiance de fête avec les préparatifs du Têt.

Selon l’écrivain Phạm Huỳnh, le Tết est la sanctification, la glorification, l’exaltation de la religion familiale et du culte des ancêtres. C’est aussi à cette occasion que toute la famille s’est réunie du plus jeune jusqu’au plus âgé autour de la marmite pour faire cuire  le gâteau de riz à la vapeur.  Elle se retrouve ce jour-là au grand complet sous l’œil des ancêtres dont les tablettes sont découvertes sur l’autel  nettoyé  avec soin et richement décoré. La veille du nouvel an (ou đêm giao thừa), le chef de famille allume les bâtonnets d’encens sur l’autel pour inviter les âmes des ancêtres à venir passer le Têt avec les vivants.

C’est une occasion pour le chef de famille de transmettre à ses enfants la tradition du culte des ancêtres et de leur apprendre les rites du culte. Tout le monde, du plus jeune jusqu’au plus âgé se relaie pour se prosterner devant l’autel, en ayant chacun une pensée émue pour les défunts et en implorant leur aide pour la réalisation de vœux profonds. On trouve non seulement durant les jours du Têt, sur l’autel, tous les plats raffinés, des fruits triés sur le volet, des gâteaux, en particulier le gâteau de riz gluant et des tasses de thé ou d’eau mais aussi les branches de pêchers (au nord Vietnam)  ou de cerisiers (au sud Vietnam)  en fleurs. Celles-ci sont choisies de manière que les fleurs éclosent durant les fêtes du Têt. Des présents apportés par les enfants  aux mânes des ancêtres  sont  aussi visibles sur l’autel pour faciliter leurs besoins dans l’autre vie. Le Têt n’est pas seulement la fête des vivants mais il est aussi la fête des morts. C’est aussi durant les trois premiers jours du Tết que ces derniers participent activement à la vie de leur famille et de leurs descendants. On les invoque aux deux principaux repas deux fois par jour. La fin du troisième jour, les mânes sont censés retourner dans l’autre monde et continuent à étendre sur les descendants les bienfaits de leur protection.

Le Tết est aussi le moment de faire revivre une vieille tradition culturelle. On voit apparaître dans des endroits publics un grand nombre de lettrés des temps modernes (ou des maîtres calligraphes). Ils sont prêts à faire des traits artistiques dans l’écriture comme le  vol du dragon et la danse de phénix à l’encre de Chine sur les papiers d’un rouge  vermillon étalés sur les trottoirs  avec leur tour de main. Cela permet à ceux qui les leur demandent  parmi les passants de pouvoir les exposer devant leur maison et de rendre cette dernière encore plus belle. De telles sentences ne manquent pas d’être visibles autour des portes des maisons ou sur les colonnes d’une pagode ou d’un temple:

Thịt mỡ dưa hành câu đối đỏ
Cây nêu tràng pháo bánh chưng xanh

Viande grasse, légumes salés, sentences parallèles rouges
Mâts du Tết, chapelets de pétards, gâteaux de riz du nouvel an.

Ou

Thiên tăng tuế nguyệt nhân tăng thọ
Xuân mãn càn khôn, phúc mãn đường

Du moment que le ciel a encore des mois et des années, vous vivez encore plus longtemps
Du moment que le printemps arrive de nouveau sur terre, votre maisonnée est inondée de nouveau  de bonheur.

Ou

Niên niên tăng phú qúi
Nhật nhật thọ vinh hoa.

Que les richesses s’accumulent au fil des années
Que la gloire et le bonheur vous comblent  au fil des jours.

Le Têt est aussi la fête des enfants. Ceux-ci sont parés de leurs plus beaux habits et s’amusent ensemble aux pétards dans les rues. Ils reçoivent des adultes une enveloppe rouge contenant un billet ou une pièce de monnaie qui leur porte chance durant toute l’année.  Quand aux adultes, ils se rendent en procession dans les pagodes et essaient de connaître leur avenir en tirant chacun une baguette divinatoire. C’est aussi l’occasion de respecter certaines règles élémentaires que tout Vietnamien doit savoir: bannir les gros mots, mettre en sourdine toutes les querelles, ne pas toucher au balai, éviter de se présenter chez quelqu’un le premier jour de l’année etc… durant toute l’année. C’est aussi l’occasion de voir la danse de la licorne (Múa Lân) ou la danse du Dragon. Cet animal dont la tête est  décorée magnifiquement et dont le corps est porté par plusieurs danseurs ondule au rythme des sons des tambourins. Il est toujours accompagné par un autre danseur hilare et ventru agitant son éventail et portant une robe de couleur safran (Ông Ðịa). C’est la danse-combat entre l’homme et l’animal, entre le Bien et le Mal qui se termine toujours par le triomphe de l’homme sur l’animal.

Les festivités du Têt se prolongent durant une semaine voire un mois dans certains villages. Mais à cause des difficultés de la vie, il est coutume de cesser de travailler seulement aujourd’hui durant les trois premiers jours de l’année.

Dans l’horoscope vietnamien,  les signes astrologiques sont au nombre de douze et ils sont symbolisés par les douze animaux suivants: Rat, Buffle, Tigre, Chat, Dragon, Serpent, Cheval, Chèvre, Singe, Coq, Chien et Cochon qui se succèdent dans un ordre très précis. Contrairement à l’astrologie occidentale, le signe astrologique n’est pas déterminé en fonction du mois de naissance mais plutôt selon l’année de naissance. Chaque individu possède un signe astrologique  qui est symbolisé par l’association de l’un de ces animaux  trouvés  dans les douze branches terrestres et l’un des cinq éléments célestes (Wu Xing)(ou Ngũ Hành en vietnamien): Thủy, Hỏa, Mộc, Kim, Thổ
Eau, Feu, Bois, Métal et Terre. Par exemple cette année est l’année du Cheval de feu (Bính Ngọ)

Le mot Bính est choisi parmi les  noms des 10 troncs célestes (ou thập thiên can en vietnamien) groupés 2 par 2 à partir du Yin et Yang et de la théorie des 5 éléments (Wuxing): Giáp, Ất, Bính, Đinh, Mậu, Kĩ, Canh, Tân, Nhâm, Qúi): [Giáp, Ất] =Bois (Mộc), [Bính, Đinh]=Feu (Hỏa), [Mậu,Kĩ]=Terre (Thổ), [Canh, Tân]=Métal (Kim),[Nhâm,Quý]=Eau (Thủy)).  Ce mot Bính appartient ainsi  à l’élément  Feu. 

C’est pourquoi cette année est l’année Tết Bính Ngọ (Année du Cheval de Feu ). On ne la retrouve que tous les soixante ans (càd 1906, 1966, 2026, 2086 etc.). Dans les Annales de notre histoire, il y a eu deux Tết dont les Vietnamiens se souviennent longtemps: c’est le Têt qui permit à l’empereur Quang Trung de reconquérir notre capitale Hanoï en 1788 contre les Qing et le Tết Mậu Thân en 1968 au Sud-Vietnam. 

Le Tết est pour chacun des Vietnamiens une période infiniment heureuse  qui a l’avantage de se renouveler tous les ans et qui lui permet de vivre durant quelques jours dans une sorte d’allégresse et d’avoir une satisfaction malgré les aléas de la vie. Même pauvre, on a envie d’avoir une vie radieuse pour un  nouvel Tết comme le célèbre poète Trần Tế Xương dans son poème intitulé: Le nouvel an (*)

Ami, ne croyez pas qu’en ce Tết je sois pauvre!
Je n’ai pas encore retiré l’argent de mon coffre
Mon vin de chrysanthème, on tarde à l’apporter;
Et le thé au lotus, le prix à débattre,
Pour les gâteaux sucrés, j’ai craint qu’ils ne coulent
À la chaleur, de même que les pâtés de porc.
Allons, tant pis, attendons l’an prochain
Amis, ne croyez pas qu’en ce Têt je sois pauvre!

Traditions entretenues à l’occasion du nouvel an vietnamien:

  • Tet_nouvel_an

[Return Tết Bính Ngọ]

(*) Trích ra trong quyển sách có tựa đề : Các con cò trên cánh đồng lúa. Lê Thành Khôi. Nhà Xuất Bản Gallimard.
Extrait du livre intitulé « Aigrettes sur la rizière ». Auteur Lê Thành Khôi. Connaissances de l’Orient. Gallimard.

 

Tết Bính Ngọ (version vietnamienne)

j050807 Culture, Histoire, Lịch sử, Văn Hóa, Vietnam

Tết Nguyên Đán (11 Février 2026)

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Nguyên nghĩa của chữ “Tết” chính là “tiết” mà tiết có trong tự điển Hán Việt thì có nghĩa đốt hay khúc tre, còn mở rộng nghĩa là một phiến đoạn thời gian trong năm. Như vậy là một khoảng thời gian nhất định trong năm. Ở Việtnam có nhiều Tết lắm như Tết Trung Thu, Tết Thanh Minh, Tết Đoan Ngọ vân vân… mà Tết quan trọng nhất là Tết Nguyên Đán  (節元旦) hay là Tết Cả trong văn hoá của người dân Việt.

Đây là cũng là thời gian mà người nông dân để ruộng đồng nghỉ ngơi với sự mong muốn sẽ có được một mùa thu hoạch tốt hơn năm sau nhờ sự phục hồi của tạo hóa. Đây là lý do tại sao trong một trong những bài ca dao nổi tiếng của Việt Nam, chúng ta tìm thấy những vần thơ  sau đây:

Một năm là mười hai kỳ
Em ngồi em tính có gì chẳng ra
Tháng giêng ăn Tết ở nhà
Tháng hai rỗi rãi quay ra nuôi tầm

Đó cũng là ngày lễ của tình bạn bè nhưng trên hết là ngày lễ cúng bái tổ tiên và các thần tài. Theo các nhà sử học, việc tổ chức lễ hội này có từ thời nhà Hán đô hộ (tức là thế kỷ thứ nhất của thời đại Thiên chúa giáo). Công việc chuẩn bị cho ngày lễ này rất tỉ mỉ và cần trước nhiều ngày. Bảy ngày trước Tết có lễ tiễn đưa  Táo quân  (ông Táo).  Ông trở lại trần gian vào đêm  ba mươi Tết  tháng mười hai âm lịch. Trong làng, trước mỗi ngôi nhà được dựng một  cây nêu cao đến vài thước.

Trên cây nêu được thấy các lễ vật, các vàng mã và các bài vị bằng đất sét nung (hay khánh) phát tiếng động khi có gió rung. Đây là một truyền thống Phật giáo có lâu đời để ngăn chặn sự xâm nhập của tà ma vào nhà. Ở làng quê ta cũng được thấy không khí lễ hội rộn ràng với những công việc chuẩn bị đón Tết.

Theo nhà văn Phạm Huỳnh, Tết là việc làm lễ theo nghi thức  tôn nghiêm, tôn vinh gia đạo và sùng bái tổ tiên. Cũng chính vào dịp này, cả nhà từ đứa bé nhỏ  nhất đến người lớn tuổi quây quần bên nồi hấp bánh chưng.  Đây cũng là dịp cả  nhà đông đủ đoàn tụ lại dưới tầm mắt của ông bà tổ tiên qua các bài vị được phát hiện ở trên bàn thờ được lau chùi một cách  cẩn thận và trang trí rất phong phú.

Vào đêm giao thừa, người chủ gia đình thắp nhang trên bàn thờ để mời các ông bà tổ tiên về ăn Tết với các con cháu. Đây cũng là dịp để người chủ gia đình truyền lại  các truyền thống thờ cúng tổ tiên lại cho các con cháu và truyền dạy các nghi thức  cúng bái. Tất cả mọi người, từ đứa bé đến người lớn tuổi, lần lượt cúi đầu trước bàn thờ, mỗi người đều có một ý nghĩ sâu sắc đối với người đã khuất và cầu xin họ giúp đỡ để có được những  ước nguyện mong muốn. Chúng ta không chỉ tìm thấy trong những ngày Tết, trên bàn thờ, tất cả các cao lương mỹ vị, các hoa quả được lựa chọn cẩn thận, các bánh đặc biệt là bánh chưng và các tách trà hoặc nước mà còn có cả những cành đào (ở miền Bắc) hay  những cành mai (ở miền Nam) đầy hoa nở. Các cành này được chọn để các hoa nở đúng lúc giữa những ngày Tết.

Các lễ vật mà các con cháu mang đến cúng tổ tiên cũng được bày trên bàn thờ để tiện cho họ mang về thế giới bên kia mà dùng. Tết không chỉ là lễ của các người còn sống mà còn là lễ của các người qua đời. Cũng chính trong ba ngày đầu tiên của Tết, những người qua đời nầy tham gia tích cực vào cuộc sống của gia đình và các con cháu của họ. Họ được  được mời dự một ngày hai lần ở hai bữa ăn cơm chính. Cuối ngày thứ ba, họ quay trở về thế giới bên kia và tiếp tục mở rộng các lợi ích bảo vệ cho con cháu.

Tết còn là thời khắc làm sống lại một truyền thống văn hóa lâu đời. Một số học giả của thời hiện đại (hoặc các ông đồ) được  thấy xuất hiện ở các nơi công cộng. Họ sẵn sàng phục vụ viết bằng mực Tàu với những nét chữ đẹp đẽ như rồng bay phượng múa trên giấy đỏ trải dài trên vỉa hè bằng sở trường của mình, những câu đối cho ai muốn có được, giữa những người khác qua đường để họ có thể  trang trí trước nhà. Những câu đối như vầy thường được thấy ở trước cổng nhà hay ở các cột của các đền chùa:

Thịt mỡ dưa hành câu đối đỏ
Cây nêu tràng pháo bánh chưng xanh.
Hay là
Thiên tăng  tuế nguyệt nhân tăng thọ
Xuân mãn càn khôn, phúc mãn đường.
Hay là
Niên niên tăng phú quí
Nhật nhật thọ vinh hoa.

Tết còn là lễ  của các thiếu nhi. Các em bé xúng xính trong những bộ quần áo đẹp đẽ và cùng nhau đốt pháo vui vẽ trên các đường phố. Chúng còn nhận được từ người lớn một phong bì đỏ trong đó có chứa một tờ tiền giấy hoặc một đồng xu may mắn quanh năm cho chúng. Còn các người lớn, họ đi viếng chùa và cố đoán trước tương lai của mình qua cách xin xăm gieo quẻ. Đây cũng là cơ hội để tôn trọng những quy tắc cơ bản mà người Việt Nam nào cũng cần phải biết: cấm nói tục chửi thề, tránh mọi cuộc cãi vã, không dùng chổi quét nhà, tránh đến nhà ai đó vào ngày đầu năm vân vân…. Đây cũng là dịp để xem Múa Lân hay múa Rồng. Con linh vật này đầu được trang trí đẹp mắt và thân thể của nó được nâng lên bởi một số vũ công uốn lượn theo nhịp điệu của âm thanh của các tiếng trống.  Nó luôn luôn đi cùng với một vũ công bụng phệ, vui cười hay vẫy quạt và mặc áo choàng màu vàng nghệ (Ông Địa). Đây là cuộc khiêu chiến giữa người và động vật, giữa Thiện và Ác, luôn luôn kết thúc bằng chiến thắng của con người trên động vật.

Lễ hội đón Tết thông thường  kéo dài cả tuần, thậm chí cả tháng ở một số làng quê. Nhưng vì cuộc sống khó khăn nên thông lệ hôm nay chỉ nghỉ làm việc trong ba ngày đầu năm.

Trong tử vi Việt Nam, các  cung hoàng đạo có được 12 cung và được tượng trưng bởi mười hai con giáp sau đây: Tý, Sửu, Dần, Mẹo, Thìn, Tị, Ngọ, Mùi, Thân, Dậu, Tuất, Hợi. Các con giáp nầy được nối tiếp nhau theo một thứ tự rất chính xác. Không giống như chiêm tinh học phương Tây, các cung hoàng đạo không được xác định bởi tháng sinh mà là năm sinh.

Mỗi người có một cung hoàng đạo được tượng trưng bởi sự kết hợp của một con giáp trong mười hai con giáp của thập nhị địa chi  tức là 12 nhánh của Đất và một hành trong ngũ hành: Thủy, Hỏa, Mộc, Kim, Thổ chẳng hạn Bính Ngọ là  năm nay. Hỏa được chọn tên trong thập thiên can kết nối thành  từng đôi từ Âm Dương và ngũ hành: Giáp, Ất, Bính, Đinh, Mậu, Kỷ, Canh, Tân, Nhâm, Qúy: [Giáp, Ất] = Mộc, [Bính, Đinh] = Hỏa, [Mậu, Kỹ ] = Thổ, [Canh, Tân] = Kim, [Nhâm, Qúy] = Thủy. Như vậy Bính thuộc về hành Hỏa.
Đây là lý do tại sao năm nay là năm Tết Bính Ngọ. Nó chỉ được  có lại sau sáu mươi năm (tức là 1906, 1966, 2026, 2086 vân vân …). Trong biên niên sử của chúng ta, có hai cái Tết mà người dân Việt vẫn nhớ lâu: đó là cái Tết mà vua Quang Trung tái chiếm thủ đô Hà Nội vào năm 1788 chống lại quân Thanh và Tết Mậu Thân năm 1968 ở miền Nam Việt Nam.

Đối với mỗi người dân Việt, Tết  là một khoảng thời gian vô cùng hạnh phúc nhất là Tết còn được trở lại mỗi năm và cho phép  mỗi người  dân Việt được sống vài ngày trong sự mừng rỡ hân hoan  và thỏa mãn bất chấp những nổi thăng trầm trong cuộc sống. Dù nghèo, cũng mong muốn có được một cuộc sống tươi sáng để đón một cái Tết như nhà thơ nổi tiếng Trần Tế Xương trong bài thơ có tựa đề: Tết đến (*)

Anh em đừng nghĩ Tết tôi nghèo,
Tiền bạc trong kho chưa lãnh tiêu,
Rượu cúc nhắm đến hàng biếng quảy,
Trà sen muốn hỏi giá còn kiêu,
Bánh đường sắp gói e nồm chảy,
Giò lụa toan làm sợ nắng thiu,
Thôi thế thì thôi đành Tết khác,
Anh em đừng nghĩ Tết tôi nghèo

Những tập tục thường thấy trước hay lúc Tết về:

 

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Tet_nouvel_an

Temple royal des Trần (Phủ Thiên Trường)

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Phủ Thiên Trường

Đây là một quần thể kiến trúc và lịch sử dành để thờ các vua nhà Trần và các quan có công phù tá. Nằm trên quốc lộ số 10 trong tỉnh Nam Định, đền nầy được xây cất lại năm 1695 trên nền thái miếu cũ được gọi là phủ Thiên Trường mà quân xâm lược nhà Minh phá hủy vào thế kỷ 15.  Cũng ở nơi nầy mà phát tích vương triều nhà Trần.  Các vua nhà Trần tạm về nơi nầy để lánh nạn trong thời gian chống giặc Nguyên Mông của Hốt Tất Liệt.

Temple royal  des Trần

C’est un  ensemble architectural et historique remarquable  dédié au culte des  rois de la dynastie des Trần  et de leurs  célèbres  serviteurs.  Situé à la route nationale n°10 dans la province de Nam Định, il fut reconstruit en 1695 sur l’emplacement de l’ancien temple royal  connu sous le nom « Phủ Thiên Trường »  détruit complètement par les envahisseurs chinois (les Ming) au XVème siècle. C’est ici qu’est née la dynastie des Trần. Les rois des Trần  y trouvaient refuge durant la guerre contre les Mongols de Kubilai Khan. 

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Bibliothèque nationale de France Richelieu

j050807 Art, Culture, Histoire, site touristique, Paris

Bibliothèque nationale de France Richelieu (Paris)

Thư viện  quốc gia Pháp Richelieu (Paris).

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Une brève histoire d’un long projet
L’idée de construire la Salle Ovale a commencé en 1897, lorsque l’architecte Jean-Louis Pascal l’a conçue comme un nouvel espace de lecture pour les périodiques. Les progrès furent tellement lents. À cause des guerres, des problèmes financiers et des changements de direction, cette construction a pris du retard pour terminer seulement  son achèvement en 1932 lorsque Alfred Recoura  a repris les plans. Elle a été officiellement inaugurée en 1936 par le président Albert Lebrun.
Au fil des années, la salle a changé de rôle: de l’hébergement de documents de référence à l’accueil de l’Institut National d’Histoire de l’Art (INHA). Après une rénovation majeure, elle a rouvert en 2022 en reprenant sa mission initiale: une salle de lecture publique pour tous.

Một lịch sử ngắn gọn của một dự án dài

Ý tưởng về việc xây dựng phòng Bầu dục được bắt đầu vào năm 1897, khi kiến trúc sư Jean-Louis Pascal thiết kế nó như một không gian đọc mới dành cho các tạp chí định kỳ. Tiến trình nầy  rất chậm. Chiến tranh, các vấn đề tài chính và thay đổi lãnh đạo đã làm trì hoãn việc hoàn thành nó cho đến năm 1932, khi ông  Alfred Recoura tiếp nhận lại các bản thiết kế. Phòng nầy được chính thức khánh thành vào năm 1936 bởi Tổng thống Albert Lebrun.

Theo thời gian, phòng đã thay đổi vai trò : từ việc lưu trữ các tài liệu tham khảo sang tiếp nhận Viện Lịch sử Nghệ thuật Quốc gia (INHA). Sau một đợt cải tạo trọng đại, thư viện đã mở cửa trở lại vào năm 2022 và trở về sứ mệnh ban đầu: một phòng đọc công cộng dành cho tất cả mọi người.

A Brief History of a Long Project

The idea of building the Oval Room began in 1897, when architect Jean-Louis Pascal designed it as a new reading space for periodicals. The progress was very slow. War, financial issues, and changes in leadership delayed its completion until 1932, when Alfred Recoura took over the designs. The room was officially inaugurated in 1936 by President Albert Lebrun.

Over time, the room’s role changed: from storing reference materials to housing the National Institute of Art History (INHA). After a major renovation, the library reopened in 2022 and returned to its original mission: a public reading room for everyone.

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Liangzhu civilization

j050807 Art, Chine, Culture, Liangzhu, Văn Hóa, Vietnam

 

 Liangzhu civilization

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Chinese culture has developed over many centuries like a mosaic with many cultures. This is one of the prominent characteristics of Chinese culture: the ability to receive and absorb foreign cultures without any signs of transformation or cultural degradation. This is what the famous 20th-century Chinese philosopher Liang Shuming wrote in the introduction to the work « The Main Thoughts of Chinese Culture » (translated by Michel Masson Publishing House). More recently, the Chinese sociologist Zhi Cheng acknowledged this in the book  » Lianzhu civilization. A civilization that lasted for 20.000 years » published by Scientific Research Publishing Inc. in December 2024.

He also believes that the development of culture in Central Plains, especially the Yangshao culture, was due to the great migration of the Liangzhu people after the catastrophic flood, which led to the emergence of oracle bone script on turtle plastrons later during the Yin-Shang period. The Liangzhu people had already known this type of pictographic script 2,000 years earlier,  with the use of animal bones in divination and rituals.

The Liangzhu culture, to be precise, is the representative culture of the ancient city of Liangzhu, flourishing from 5300 to 4300 BC. This culture is evidenced by abundant archaeological materials. It also represents the peak cultural development period of the ancient city of Liangzhu during the Stone Age. This culture was discovered in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River with a city wall measuring 1,500-1,700 meters in length from east to west. This culture was much more advanced than the Yangshao and Dawenkou cultures. 

It is known that the residents of Liangzhu had a stable sedentary lifestyle along with an irrigation system using water stored through canals and a social organization that required many people for production and distribution. According to archaeological documents and legends about Shennong (who lived around 3320-3080 BCE), there is a complete coincidence with this culture because, according to the historical records of Sima Qian, King Shennong was the first king in the south, while in the north, nomadic tribes were ruled by Emperor Huangdi (the Yellow Emperor). Sima Qian also mentioned King Dayu (the first king of the Xia dynasty) who contributed to flood control to stabilize life and develop farming, and was succeeded by King Shun who established the Xia dynasty (2255 BCE – 2207 BCE) at the time when the Liangzhu culture disappeared.

Thanks to the support of modern science and technology, the spread of the Liangzhu civilization has also been confirmed by geoarchaeology. The collapse of the Liangzhu culture and other Neolithic cultures in the lower Yangtze River region was due to climate change and continuous flooding, forcing the inhabitants to flee. Many plateau areas in the interior of mainland China remained, which were very suitable for internal migration of the people when sea levels rose. Therefore, the number of survivors after this disaster was still quite large. Considering the terrain after the sea flooded, a portion of the Liangzhu population moved northward to the Erlitou area. At this time, the Erlitou culture had already reached a certain scale.

This has formed the current mainstream cultural context in China. Another part of the Liangzhu culture may have been introduced into Jiangxi, Hunan, southern Hubei, the Sichuan plain, and other places due to the sea flooding. The main reason for this is that the ancient Liangzhu people migrated to higher land by land, the closest being Jiangxi. The shipbuilding technology of the ancient Liangzhu people was highly developed, so a large number of ancient Liangzhu people could also enter Hunan, southern Hubei (Shijiahé culture), and even the Sichuan plain by traveling by boat along the reverse sea waters.

Among these regions, the Sanxingdui culture in the Chengdu Plain is an important site for the revival of the Liangzhu culture. Jiangxi and other relatively high areas have inherited the Liangzhu agricultural culture. Finally, it was the culture of the Central Plains, represented by Erlitou, that developed writing on turtle shells. Of course, although the powerful Central Plain culture developed and spread rapidly, the transmission of the older part of the Liangzhu culture was never interrupted.

This includes the Central Plains culture, with its core component being the older Liangzhu culture. In the southern region, the more primitive elements of the Liangzhu culture are still preserved. The existence of the Liangzhu culture in the Bai Yue countries belonging to southern China during the pre-Qin period is clearly seen through the Shijiahé culture, the Sanxingdui culture, the Phùng Nguyên culture, or the Đồng Sơn culture, and on the Pacific islands in the form of the Austronesian culture, and it may even have spread to the Americas, promoting the development of the Maya civilization there. Of course, the cultures in different regions of mainland China are closely related to the dominant culture of the Central Plains, thus creating a diverse and unified cultural system of China.

Why did the Lianzhu culture have a brilliant and widespread influence in prehistoric Asia? It is a culture closely associated with agriculture and waterways, linked to the great Bai Yue tribe. This is no longer denied by anyone, with the following six characteristics considered as distinctive features of the Lianzhu culture or the great  Bai Yue tribe, whose core is the Vietnamese people today.

The Liangzhu people knew how to use clay and made clay pots for cooking to bring quality through delicious dishes and help them have a better life. This custom quickly spread to neighboring regions (Hunan (Hồ Nam), Zhejiang (Chiết Giang), Japan and so on), while the nomads in the north still ate raw or grilled meat. Of course, this characteristic was not essential in the process of human survival according to sociologist Zhi Cheng (Chí Thành) , but it helped the Liangzhu people know how to boil water and cook rice. In the Neolithic period, the Liangzhu people did not yet know materials and the use of metal tools, so all main constructions such as houses were made of wood, clay, and stone. Therefore, after thousands of years, these materials were eroded by the humid weather, especially the houses, so just a great flood later left no traces except in the core area of the ancient Liangzhu city. It can be said that the Liangzhu culture is a clay pottery culture.This is the first characteristic of the Liangzhu culture.

They also knew how to cultivate rice and related crops. The oldest rice variety in the world was domesticated at the Shangshan cultural site belonging to the Liangzhu civilization area. Rice had also become an important food source for the Liangzhu people, although brown rice is relatively hard and difficult to chew. They boiled all kinds of plant fibers. However, by boiling with water at 100°C, brown rice could be cooked and turned into rice or porridge. They also knew how to process rice and brew sake very skillfully. Archaeologists have found residues remaining from the brewing process in many pottery samples excavated from the Shangshan (Thượng Sơn) culture. A few people engaged in rice farming, while there were very large groups working in other industries outside of agriculture, such as fishing and mining.

The third important feature is the well-established hydraulic transportation system in the city. One of the most prominent features of the ancient Liangzhu city is its canal system. These canals include both natural rivers and a large number of artificial canals. To meet the demand for efficient long-distance transportation of people and materials during the Stone Age, the Liangzhu people often built houses along a large river or an artificial canal. They could freely move on the river or canal using boats or dugout canoes that they invented from massive wooden blocks. The construction of these boats was very precise despite the lack of written records at that time. (Hemudu Culture). In this culture, there is also the application of textile technology on a large scale.

The fourth important feature is the jade culture. This is also a distinguishing point of the Liangzhu culture compared to some other cultures. At first, stone axes were used as a medium of exchange (Majiabang culture) but later the Liangzhu people used jade as currency. At that time, precious metals such as gold were not yet available. Therefore, after accumulating wealth, the Liangzhu people needed to use expensive jade which was relatively harder than stone.

Of course, these precious stone tools were not easily damaged and could be preserved for a long time, naturally becoming an intermediary in the exchange of goods. The monetary function of these jewelry items was quickly reinforced, and they became a symbol of wealth accumulation in ancient Liangzhu society.

Each household would own these jade objects. Therefore, there is a differentiation between rich and poor in the burials depending on the number of jade pieces they have, but the tombs do not have inscriptions, so the names of the tomb owners are unknown, and the construction is not complex. From this, the emergence of power institutions through wealth appears, leading to the separation of cemeteries for the rich and the poor (Songze culture). For jade to circulate in large quantities and widely, jade crafting workshops were also necessary. It was like a modern money-printing factory. When jade ore was transported from farther away, it could be crafted and produced further within the Liangzhu culture and society.

The fifth important characteristic is the use of abstract graphic symbols to convey meaning. This is also a prominent feature of the Liangzhu culture. This culture did not require the use of writing. The absence of writing does not mean that the essence of the Liangzhu culture could not be transmitted. The large number of jade burial objects in Liangzhu tombs shows that the ancient city of Liangzhu had a very open environment, so commerce was very developed and capitalism grew rapidly. This indicates that it was also a very effective tool for conveying messages, a characteristic of the Liangzhu culture through the jade burial objects found during excavations. They are even more complex than modern artworks and are very abstract. Besides its function as a symbol of power, the bronze drum  Đồng Sơn of the Vietnamese people also possesses a characteristic whose exact meaning no one has yet been able to explain, particularly  with regard to its surface

Another artistic achievement of the ancient Liangzhu people is the carvings and various symbols. These images and symbols reflect the ancient people’s understanding of the world during the Liangzhu period. These carvings also seem to hold very high artistic value in modern times. Such an exquisite carving is similar to the anti-counterfeiting technology on our current banknotes. Therefore, it can be proven that during the Liangzhu period, jade craftsmen invented technology to protect intellectual property rights.

The final characteristic is that the ancient people of the Liangzhu culture liked to eat spicy food and brought these customs to the Americas, later preserving them in Jiangxi, Hunan, Hubei, Sichuan, and other places. According to the ancient Liangzhu people, « eating spicy » food was meant to eliminate excess fat accumulation in the human body. As a result, lifespan was increased. The elderly in Liangzhu had enough time to pass on their rich cultural knowledge to the next generation. This is also an important reason why the Liangzhu culture could continue for tens of thousands of years without interruption.

Bibliography

Liang Shuming: Les idées maîtresses de la culture chinoise. Editeur: Michel Masson. 201Z
Zhi Cheng:  Liangzhu civilization. A civilization that lasted for 20.000 years. Ed: Scientific Research Publishing  2024.
Shin’ichi Nakamura: Le riz, le jade et la ville. Évolution des sociétés néolithiques du Yangzi. Éditions de l’EHESS « Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales. 2005/5 60e année | pages 1009 à 1034.

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