traditions

Marriage (Hôn nhân)

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mariage

Hôn Nhân

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More than the eternal world law, it first appears that marriage in Vietnam is an alliance of families aiming at perpetuating not only the race but also the Vietnamese customs, especially the cult of ancestors.

Moreover, Vietnamese people, imbued with Taoist spirit, consider that youth has only a limited time like that of a bamboo shoot. Therefore people had the habit of marrying early in the old days in Vietnam.

Similar to the Ming Code in China, the Lê Code provided the minimal age of marriage at 13 for girls and 16 for boys. That is why in a Vietnamese proverb, it is said:

Gái thập tam, nam thập lục 
ou in English 
Girls at thirteen, boys at sixteen 

that Vietnamese society allows for marriage. It is always done in accordance with the Confucian tradition. It is always preceded by negotiations led by matchmakers and followed by exchange of astrological data if first contacts proved to be convincing. 

This, in a general manner would lead to the promise of marriage which should be kept under penalty of fines imposed by local mandarins in the old days. The engagement ceremony is also an occasion to confirm the definite commitment to marriage.

As for the latter, it occurs following a ceremonial standard to include the arrival of the future wife in palanquin, her discovery by the fiance, a ritual ceremony of offering before the altar of ancestors, then before the spouses’ parents, the holding of hands and the exchange of oath.

However, the same word is not used to refer to the marriage of a princess or an ordinary girl. « Hạ Giá » is used when it comes to the marriage of a princess because the king gives his daughter’s hand to someone less powerful than he, and of lower ranking. ( Hạ means « below » and Giá means « Marry »). For marriages between normal people, Xuất Giá is used because Xuất means « exit ». In the old days, rarely did the spouses know each other before getting married. 

The marriage was considered an arrangement between parents aiming at honoring a debt or contracting an alliance. It reflects also the Confucian state of mind not to be in favor of the predominance of the individual over family and society. The marriage of princess Huyền Trân to the Champa king Chế Mẫn ( Jaya Simhavarman III ) illustrated well this state of mind.

For territorial ambitions, it was difficult for king Trần Anh Tôn to ignore the promise made by his father, king Trần Nhân Tôn to give the hand of his sister to the king of Champa although he was aware of her love to general Trần Khắc Chung. An anonymous author at the time did not hesitate to denounce it in his Tang style, seven-foot poems entitled Vương Tường, comparing princess Vương Tường ( or Wang Zhaojun in Chinese ), a concubine of the Han emperor, Yuandi ( Hán Nguyên Ðế )(48-33 B.C.) destined to the king of Xiongnu ( shanyu Huhanxie ) in the goal of restoring peace with the barbarians coming from the steppes North of China.

In spite of that, there is in the annals of marriages the case of general Trần Quốc Tuấn where love triumphed over reason and the will of the parents although he was known as a very convinced confucianist. When he was young, he fell in love with princess Thiên Thành, king Trần Thái Tôn’s sister who did not even hide her admiration for this talented general.

But it was forbidden for him to materialize his intention because his father, An Sinh Vương Trần Liễu opposed that union, having been forced by the machiavellian prime minister Trần Thủ Ðộ. at that time to yield his concubine, princess of the Ly, Thuận Thiên to his brother, king Trần Thái Tôn in the goal of perpetuate the dynasty. One day having learned that the king has granted the hand of his sister Thien Thanh to the son of Nhân Ðạo Vương, he was stunned and so sad that he did not know what to do although at that time he was known to be the best strategist in the struggle against the Mongols. 
Seeing him distraught, one of his aides known to be the most cunning suggested he seize the fiancee by surprise on the wedding day. Thanks to this extraordinary boldness, he succeeded in materializing his love, obtaining the king’s pardon and conquering the esteem of his entourage, in particular that of his father because the latter found in him not only a man of genius but also a son worthy and capable of cleansing the shame of the family. Marriage is sometimes the source of worry for those who assume a responsibility or a political role on this land of legends.

It is the case of emperor Duy Tân. Obsessed by his father emperor Thành Thái’s deposition and exile by the colonial authorities, Duy Tân since his coming up to the throne at age 7, has relentlessly nourished the intention of reopening the whole question the Patenôtre Treaty and reestablishing Vietnam’s sovereignty and independence by all means including force. He never thought of getting married as long as the country is under foreign occupation.

This has caused a lot of worry and anxiety for his mother, queen Nguyễn Thị Ðịnh. She saw in her son the immaturity and lack of authority toward his people because Duy Tan did not have any descendants. She hurriedly presented to the emperor a list of 25 young noble girls chosen

and provided by the mandarins. But facing Duy Tan’s disinterest and impassibility, she was furious and ordered him to look for a concubine within a short time. Being a pious son, he knew he could no longer delay the deadline and ignore his mother’s insistence. He replied with an impassible tone:

Up to now I have refused your list because I have long been in love with another girl one year older than I. This one, I am going to see her in ten days at the Cửa Tùng beach. 
Puzzled, the queen mother decided to join him during his walk at the Cửa Tùng beach. Duy Tan spent the whole day searching in the sand. In the evening, the queen mother decided to ask:

Don’t you find it ridiculous to look for your darling in the sand?

Duy Tân tried to provide an explanation with modesty:

I am never that nutty. All I told you is true. If we cannot find gold in the sand, we can find it in the capital Huế.

From then on the queen mother began to grasp the hint Duy Tân had evoked. It has something to do with the daughter of his teacher named Mai Thị Vàng. ( Vàng means gold in English ).

Intrigued by her son’s choice, the queen mother asked him one more time:

For what reason do you choose her?

Duy Tân replied with conviction:

Her father Mai Khắc Ðôn has taught me to read, to love the country, to avoid sycophants and to make use of loyal servants. I infer he would teach his daughter the same thing, wouldn’t he, mother?

By this marriage, emperor Duy Tân has shown us he knew how to be up to his mother’s expectation in showing his gratitude to his teacher, the man who has taught him love this country and in choosing a wife having the same conviction and ideal as he and not becoming a hindrance to his political fight.

It is also for the love of Vietnam and for the same fight that nationalist leader Nguyễn Thái Học and his party comrade Nguyễn Thị Giang vowed to each other to become husband and wife at the altar of ancestors just before their uprising in Yên Bái. They promised to get married later, once their plan It is also for the love of Vietnam and for the same fight that nationalist leader Nguyễn Thái Học and his party comrade Nguyễn Thị Giang vowed to each other to become husband and wife at the altar of ancestors just before their uprising in Yên Bái. They promised to get married later, once their plan is realized. To show her determination and to seal their fate, Nguyễn Thị Giang asked her husband for a revolver. It was with this weapon that she killed herself after having known of the failure of the uprising and the death sentence of her husband and his compatriots by the colonial authorities. 

For several Vietnamese generations, she has become on that date, like her husband, « nhân » ( nhân means Người or an exemplary human being in English ) because Nguyễn Thái Học had the habit of telling his comrades before his death:

Không thành công thì thành nhân.

One becomes exemplary human being without being successful.

 

 

Nowadays marriage is not as precocious as before, even in the rural areas. This deferment helps protect the mother against the effects of teen age pregnancy and limit births. Marriage is no more the result of the will of parents or the alliance of families. On the other hand it no longer bears a symbolical value, a particular meaning because the newly weds often know each other before marriage in most cases. It no longer reflects the sacrifice asked of young weds to perpetuate the cult of ancestors and the race. It is first and foremost the consecration of love and the pledge for better or for worse ( duyên nợ in Vietnamese) to all eternity.

 

Conical hat (Nón lá)

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 Conical hat

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To date, there are no historical documents that clearly specify the period of creation of the conical hat. However, only its primitive form (feather hat) has been seen engraved on artifacts of the Đồng Sơn culture (such as the Ngoc Lũ bronze drum or the Đào Thịnh bronze situla) between 2500 and 3000 BC.

Since ancient times, for living and protecting themselves from the sun and rain in a tropical climate, our ancestors thought of using materials easily found in nature such as the leaves of certain plants (pandan, coconut palm, buông, hồ, cối) and straw and succeeded in inventing the conical hat. The latter has since become an essential element in the daily life of the Vietnamese. It is seen everywhere in all corners of the country. It becomes inseparable from the peasant, from the dike to the rice field or from the shore to the river. Sometimes it’s used as a fan to relax under the scorching sun. It’s often seen following street vendors through the city streets. It has long become a distinctive symbol of Vietnamese culture. It adds a touch of elegance to Vietnamese women, whether worn with a tunic or a jacket with wide sleeves.

According to historical sources, the first person to mention the Vietnamese conical hat was Zhou Qunfei (Chu Khu Phi) of the Southern Song Dynasty in the book: Linh Ngoai Dai Dap (嶺外代答序) written about the customs of our Lý Dynasty in 1178. The people of Giao Chi wore conical hats [the original text is 螺笠 le loa lap, a conical shell-shaped hat].

Later, based on the book Zhou Qunfei, the Yuan Dynasty historian Ma Duanlin (Mã Đoan Lâm) described it in “Văn hiến thông khảo” in 1307 as follows: the hat being spiral-shaped, its shape resembles that of snails… made in a very meticulous manner from thin strips of bamboo. […]. The earliest image of Vietnamese conical hats is found in the painting « Trúc Lâm đại sĩ xuất sơn đồ (The Painting of the Zhen Monk King Trần Nhân Tôn) » illustrated by the monk-drawer Trần Giám Như. This one depicting the return of the Zhen Monk King to royal life in 1363. In this painting, two men are seen wearing hats of different shapes. The first person was wearing a wide-brimmed hat with the protruding part in the middle. The other was also wearing a wide-brimmed hat very pointed.  At that time, hats were intended for many different categories of people, from the rich to the poor or from officials to servants. During the Trần Dynasty, the village of Ma Lôi (present-day Hải Dương) produced conical hats. At first, Ma Lôi hats were popular and known only to the common people, but later, the Trần king found them so beautiful. He soon made improvements to these hats for use by concubines in the royal palace. From then on, these hats were known as nón thượng. The Ma Lôi hat was later used in the national navy commanded by General Trần Khánh Dư to differentiate it from the one worn by soldiers coming from the North.


Through the painting above “Trúc Lâm đại sĩ xuất sơn đồ” by Trần Giám Như, we can firstly identify the social status of each person wearing the hat. Then secondly the hat has undergone a long journey of transformation over many centuries with many different models,  each inspired by the local culture  (such as the Ba Tầm or Quai Thao hat in northern Vietnam, the Huế hat, the Bình Định hat, the Quảng Nam hat, etc.) so that today the conical hat has become a familiar and simple object of all classes of society, an inseparable companion of the Vietnamese people. Being known not only in everyday life, the image of the conical hat is also exhibited at fashion shows and has become a source of inspiration for fashion houses today. It is also a souvenir that foreign tourists often like to buy when returning to their country.

By wearing a Vietnamese tunic with a conical hat, Miss Isabelle Menin
honors the beauty of traditional culture at the Miss Grand International 2023 (Viet Nam) 

The vietnamese catholicism (Công giáo Vietnam)

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Contrary to other religions, Catholicism stumbled tremendously over several hardships at the beginning of its establishment in Việt-Nam (at the start of 16th century). This was due a great deal to the missionaries’ refusal to adhering and integrating the cult of ancestors and customs (polygamy, belief in spirits etc…) into Catholicism and at a time when Vietnam was troubled by ceaseless internal wars.

It is the period when Vietnam knew the same fate and condition as Japan’s with a legitimate dynasty put under the guardianship by a family of hereditary ministers. This was what father Alexandre de Rhodes noticed in his book « History of the Kingdom of Tonquin« . He stressed that what people said about Tonkinese Chúa has a lot to do with what was told about Japanese Daishi. Therefore Catholicism was perceived during that period in variable manner by the governing families Trịnh in the North and Nguyễn in the South in their never ending conflict, taking the king as their hostage. It was alternatively tolerated, forbidden or even persecuted. In spite of that, Catholicism began to find a favorable echo among the deprived and even in the royal court in the person of Alexandre de Rhodes himself.

Alexandre de Rhodes

He was an outstanding individual with his exceptional linguistic capabilities. He was born in Avignon in 1591 and issue of a family of merchants probably in Israelite birth. He was the one who was chosen to head and manage catholic missions to the Kingdom of Tonquin.

He tried to gain the favor of the lord by means of their entourage and gift giving, in particular clocks and books on mathematics. Thus, he found a very neat success with lord Trịnh Tráng in North Vietnam. On the other hand, he was chased by lord Sãi Vương in the South even though he had succeeded in converting a relative of his, baptized as Marie-Madeleine. Appalled by failure against the South, lord Trịnh Tráng held foreigners responsible, especially catholic missionaries. He ended up banning conversions under penalty of death. Indefatigable missionary Alexandre de Rhodes was finally expelled in May 1630 from Vietnam leaving behind at least 50,000 Catholics trained by Vietnamese catechists and a cultural heritage that no Vietnamese nowadays will do without. His name continues to be dear to our collective memory because thanks to him we are the only country in the Far East to have a Roman alphabet.

cong_giao

Inspired by Ricci’s and Diogo de Pantoja’s works on romanization of Chinese, he came up with giving us not only a linguistic notation system based on the tonalities of the Vietnamese tongue and completed for the circumstance with a system of accents used in Polish, Hungarian and Portuguese, but also an instrument of intellectual emancipation and cultural proliferation unequalled in the Far East. He published his Vietnamese-Latin-Portuguese dictionary in 1651. Because of his expulsion from Vietnam, his work was not finished and later was retaken and completed by Mgrs. Pigneaux de Behaine and Taberd. Vietnamese Catholicism only found its slack period during the Tây Sơn unrest and witnessed its apogee at the reunification of the country under the banner of emperor Gia Long. This one was protected and hidden by Mgr. Pigneaux de Behaine when he was still the young prince Nguyễn Ánh beaten, hunted down and chased by the Tây Sơn troops in the south of the Mekong delta (Hà Tiên, Poulo Condor). Faithful to the memory of the one who gave him food and helped him conquer the throne with his French mercenaries, Gia Long, during his reign, while respecting the missionaries and their Christians, has known how to adopt an attitude similar to emperor Kangxi’s of the Qing in China (1661-1722) by a blend of tolerance, interest and open mind even though he was in favor of the renewal of traditional Confucianism. His death (in 1820) was followed for forty years by an almost complete elimination of western influence and a series of persecutions against the Catholics under the reigns of Minh Mạng, Thiệu Trị and Tự Ðức.

In spite of that, Vietnamese Catholicism continued to grow somehow and arrived at, in the person of Nguyễn Trường Tộ, avoiding combining religion and France who pretended to defend against Atheists. Nguyễn Trường Tộ was born to a catholic family of Nghệ An (North Viê.t-Nam). Following bishop Gauthier in his voyage to Europe, he had the chance to take classes at Sorbonne in Paris at that time. With the view of a patriotic, catholic and intellectual Vietnamese having the chance to go abroad, he kept believing that the only way to save Vietnam from foreign threats and maintain independence for his country, would be primarily through opening up the borders not only for the French but also for the British and the Dutch and by a whole range of political, social and technological reform projects aiming at helping Vietnam to come out of isolation, to modernize and to be equipped with better technologies in order to confront foreign territorial ambitions.

His memorandum was unfortunately not sustained by emperor Tự Ðức. Facing a group of Confucian, strongly structured mandarins who surrounded the emperor poet Tự Ðức, he had to retire a few years later to his native town and died in 1871 taking with him the sadness of a catholic patriot to see his country sinking into chaos and servitude. Torn by his faith and patriotism, Nguyẽn Trường Tộ succeeded in showing us by his behavior and exemplary conduct that it is possible to be a fervent catholic and a defender of national independence at the same time.

Despite a long period of conflicting relations with the nation, Vietnamese Catholicism wrongly accused of connivance with foreigners, knows how to show along with its existence, not only its capability of resistance, resignation and adaptation but also its strength, vitality and active and constructive participation that the country needed in the dark moments of Vietnam’s history. Concerned with improving the lot of the deprived, Vietnamese Catholicism knows how to run in the past as well as at present, charitable and humanitarian activities worth the love of Christ through schools, orphanages etc…

That is how it succeed in penetrating the combination of the three religions (Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism) and ends up with forming one body with the spirituality of Vietnam. Catholicism has for a long time been the second national religion. With 8 million Catholics, Vietnam becomes the second catholic country in Far East after the Philippines.

The cult of ancestors (Thờ cúng tổ tiên)

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The cult of ancestors

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In Vietnam, filial piety is one of the fundamental notions in the Vietnamese family which is ruled by the cult of ancestors. The latter provide good advice and only help living descendant if they are respected and honored in particular if their tombs are well maintained.In most of Vietnamese homes one finds on the little family altar wooden tablets, each for an deceased ancestor, down to the fifth generation. One finds on each tablet the inscription of the name of the deceased and also the possessed titles acquired during his active live. Generally speaking, these inscriptions were written in Chinese characters.

In each Vietnamese family, it is the eldest son who is in charge of maintaining the family altar. It is possible that the oldest person in the eldest branch of the family has this responsibility when it comes to a « big family ». No importance concerning sex is imposed on the responsible person. A daughter may assume this responsibility as well as a man.

The cult of ancestors is especially put in honor at the festival of Tết, the Vietnamese New Year. One takes this occasion to offer to the deceased not only a meal but also incense and fake money bills that will be burned

during Tết.

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Buffalo (Con trâu)

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As Vietnam is an agricultural country, the buffalo is always regarded as a familiar animal for the Vietnamese people, in particular the peasants. The image of the buffalo is closely tied to the rural landscape of Vietnam. Like many other countries in the world, Vietnam has legends among which there is one concerning the buffalo.

Once upon a time, to help the Vietnamese peasants, God was assigned an angel to descend in Viet-Nam with two bags, one filled with cereal seeds to feed people and the other with grass seeds for the cattle. The angel was advised to sow the cereals seeds first, and grass seeds next. Being so absent minded, he forgot the recommendation by doing the opposite: grass seeds first, and cereal seeds next. That is why Viet-Nam was covered with so much grass and forests that the peasants had to make a complaint which echoed to Heaven. Furious, God condemned the angel to exile by turning him into a buffalo and sent him to Viet-Nam. That is why the buffalo was compelled to spend all day long munching grass and pulling the plough to pay for his errors.

The buffalo is a very useful animal in agricultural countries, in particular Vietnam where farming technologies are not very developed. In certain countries, if the dog is the best friend of man, then in Vietnam the buffalo is an inseparable companion of the farmer. Without this animal, the latter will be deprived of everything because it is the buffalo that helps the peasant to till the land everyday, to cart the burdens, to replace him in tiring and ungrateful tasks. This ruminant is also the animal that mountain and highland dwellers sacrifice when it comes to asking God for blessing harvest.

The buffalo is the Vietnamese peasants’ benefactor. This is why it is generally quoted in folk songs and proverbs. It is one of enriching subjects in the Vietnamese poetry. For the peasant, the buffalo forms part of his heritage. That is why the saying:

Ruộng sâu, trâu nái

The deep rice field, the standard buffalo

indicates a well to do person in the village.

Tậu trâu, lấy vợ, làm nhà
Trong ba việc đo’ trong là khó thay.

Purchasing a buffalo, looking for a wife, and building a home
Among these three jobs, none of them seems to be easy.

As it is the case of fish farming, the breeding of buffaloes is a mean to get rich quick. That is why it is customary to quote in folk songs the following words:

Muốn giàu thì nuôi trâu cái,
Muốn lụn bại thì nuôi bồ câu.

Want to become rich, buy female buffaloes.
Want to be in debts, breed pigeons.

To designate the buffalo, we usually use the word “ngưu (牛)” but this turns out to be incorrect. According to Vietnamese researcher Lại Nguyên Ân, This is a mistake that we should know about. The buffalo lives only in tropical regions. The buffalo is not found in northern China. It seems that this mammal only existed in Kouang Tong and Kouang Si when the Bai Yue territory was annexed by the Han. In ancient Chinese texts written by the Northern Chinese, the word “ngưu” is used to refer to an ox. As for the buffalo, in the Chinese dictionary it is referred to as “thủy ngưu (水牛)” because it is an ox that can swim well in water. That’s a fact worth knowing.

Trâu ơi ta bảo trâu này
Trâu ra ngoài ruộng trâu cày với ta.
Cầy cấy vốn nghiệp nông gia
Ta đây trâu đấy ai mà quản công.

O my buffalo, listen to what I tell you
You go to the rice field and plough with me;
Ploughing and transplanting is a ploughman’s trade
Here I am, here you are, who of us pities his pain.

or

Trên đồng cạn dưới đồng sâu,
Chồng bừa vợ cấy con trâu đi cày.

In the high and low rice fields,
The husband harrows, the wife transplants, the buffalo ploughs.

In the morning, the buffalo can be seen early in the rice field. In the evening, it is brought back to the hamlet by the herdsman after a hard day’s work. Vietnamese have occasion to recall the picture of rustic life in the countryside described by the famous poetess Huyện Thanh Quan (the sub-prefect of Thanh Quan (or Thái Bình of today)) in her poem entitled “Twilight Landscape (Cảnh chiều hôm)”:

Chiều trời bảng lảng bóng hoàng hôn
Tiếng ốc xa đưa lẫn trống đồn.
Gác mái ngư ông về viễn phố,
Gỏ sừng mục tử lại cô thôn……

Evening brings back the shadows of twilight under a pale sky;
The sound of the watchmen’s trumpets can be heard in the distance, answering the tam-tam of the guard post;
The old fisherman lays down his oar to return to his distant station;
The young herdsman beats his buffalo’s horns to return to his lonely hamlet….

In the history of Viet Nam, there are two illustrious characters who took on the role of herdsmen when they were young. Because of poverty, they were forced to spend their days herding buffalo despite being well educated. The first was Đinh Bộ Lĩnh. He had the merit of subduing the rebellions of the twelve local lords and unifying the country. He thus became the first emperor of an independent Vietnam after a thousand years of Chinese domination. The second was Đao Duy Từ. At one time, he fled to the south (Đàng Trong) to look after a herd of buffalo belonging to a wealthy man in the Tùng Châu region. Knowing that Đao Duy Từ was no ordinary character, this wealthy man recommended him to Trần Đức Hoà, the eminent advisor to Lord Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên. Finding in him the qualities of an educated and talented man, Trần Đức Hoà gave him his daughter in marriage and introduced him to the Nguyễn lord, Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên (or bonze lord). It was on his recommendation that the latter succeeded in building two fortresses “Trường Dục” and “Định Bắc Trường thành” along the river Nhật Lê we’re accustomed to calling “the Master’s fortress” at Đồng Hới (Quảng Bình) to withstand assaults from the armies of Lord Trịnh. He was the deserving mandarin of the Nguyễn dynasty and was still regarded by lord Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên as his “Venerated Master”.

In short, one finds through the image of the buffalo most of the image of Viet-Nam, our country. For the overseas Vietnamese, to find the buffalo is to find Vietnam. This animal, along with the bamboo, is one of the representative symbols of Viet-Nam.

The buffalo reflects at the same time the tender way of life and the unshakable resistance of the Vietnamese people.

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The dragon (Con Rồng)

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There are neither Vietnamese tales nor legends without this fabulous and mythical animal that is commonly called Con Rồng or more literary Con Long (or the Dragon in English). It makes part of the four animals with supernatural power (Tứ Linh) and occupies the top place. It is frequently used in Vietnamese art. It is not only seen in pagodas, but also on the ridges of roofs, the beams of frames, furnitures, the pieces of dishes and fabrics. It is also the emblematic animal traditionally chosen by the emperor for his clothes.

All Vietnamese firmly believe they are descendents of the Dragon king Lạc Long Quân coming from the Waters and of the fairy Âu Cơ of terrestrial origins. From this union, the fairy laid one hundred eggs that gave birth to one hundred robust sons. Later, at the separation of the couple, fifty of them followed their father Dragon toward the lower coastal regions and founded the first Vietnamese nation named Văn Lang while the other fifty followed their terrestrial mother toward the high plains to give birth later to an ethnic microcosm the most complex in the world ( about fifty groups ). Although this version of the Seven Tribes of Israel is unbridled and poetic, it nevertheless allows the Vietnamese and other minority groups to live together somewhat peacefully in this country of the form of the dragon, and to unite as a sole person to overcome foreign aggressors in difficult moments of their history.

According to a Vietnamese legend, it was thanks to the return of a benefactor dragon that barbarous hordes coming from the North were routed. Its fire spitting tongues on contact with the sea turned into a multitude of small islands and reefs with extravagant forms. That is why this bay is known in Vietnamese as « Hạ Long » or ( Descending Dragon ). It becomes thus the eighth marvel of the world and a natural site the most visited by foreign tourists when they land in Vietnam.

Hạ Long Bay

The dragon is also the symbol of the King. That is why its feet must have five claws. If one sees a dragon with five claws on a furniture, a box or a china, this object is meant for the service of the emperor. Otherwise the dragon generally has only four claws.
It is also the symbol of the husband, the fiance and more generally the man. As for the woman, she is represented by the phenix. That is why when we want to make allusion to a marriage, we often associate a dragon with a phenix on a piece of embroidery or a sculpted panel. It is also this association that poets evoke in their poems to talk about marital happiness and shared joy.

The dragon is seen everywhere even in the Mekong delta. This river born in the foothills of the Himalayas ( Tibet ) divides into nine branches or nine dragons to throw itself in the golf of Cochinchina ( or Nam Bộ ). That is why this region is called Cửu Long ( or Nine Dragons in English).

If this marine monster is rebutted by the majority of the peoples, it is on the contrary, a part of the Vietnamese daily life. It is assigned to keep an watchful eye, at the imperial city of Huế, on the tombs of the Nguyễn emperors with all its body made of multicolored ceramic pieces. Golden, it coils around the carmine lacquered pillars of imperial palaces. It is one of the twelve astrological signs of the lunar calendar. It becomes not only the embroided silk clothes for tourists but also a front part sign with gaudy colors on the junks of the Hạ Long bay.

 

In the cradle of legends that is our Vietnam, we have the feeling of being better protected by this marine monster because we are convinced that  we are the descendents of king Dragon.

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Chronologie des Han occidentaux ( Niên đại nhà Tây Hán, VF)

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Chronologie des Han occidentaux

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Version anglaise

  • 202 av. J.C.: Liu Bang se proclame empereur. (Gaozu)
  • 195 av. J.C.: Mort de Gaozu.
  • 198-188 av. J.C. : règne de Huidi. (Hán Huệ Đế)
  • 188-180 av. J.C.: régence de Lu Hou (Lữ Hậu)
  • 180-157 av. J.C.: règne de Wendi. (Hán Văn Đế)
  • 157-141 av. J.C.: règne de Jindi. (Hán Cảnh Đế)
  • 154 av. J.C.: rébellion des Sept Royaumes.
  • 141-87 av. J.C. : règne de Wudi. (Hán Vũ Đế)
  • 87-74 av. J.C.: règne de Zhaodi. (Hán Chiêu Đế)
  • 80-68 av. J.C.: régence du général Huo Guang
  • 74 av. J.C.: règne de 27 jours de Liu He, empereur destitué.
  • 74-48 av. J.C.: règne de Xuandi. (Hán Tuyên  Đế) 
  • 48-33 av. J.C.: règne de Yuandi. (Hán Nguyên Đế) 
  • 33-7 av. J.C.: règne de Chengdi (Hán Thành Đế) 
  • 7-1 av. J.C.: règne de Aidi. (Hán Ai Đế)
  •  1 av.J.C.-5 après .J.C. : règne du jeune empereur Pingdi, empoisonné par Wang Mang. (Hậu Phế Đế)

 Une fois au pouvoir, Wang Mang (Vương Mãng) entama une série de réformes monétaires (3 fois en 9, 10 et 14 après .J.C.) et économiques du pays. Les classes les plus touchées étaient les nobles et les commerçants car à chaque changement de la monnaie, les pièces anciennes étaient échangées pour les neuves à un taux moins avantageux, ce qui incita les gens à fabriquer des fausses pièces au lieu de perdre leur valeur au change. Le faux-monnayage était sévèrement puni. Par contre, les paysans n’étaient pas touchés par cette réforme car ils vendaient leurs céréales en faible quantité pour l’achat des denrées nécessaires sur le marché et ils n’avaient aucun souci concernant le numéraire. Dès lors, Wang Mang s’attira la haine des nobles et des commerçants riches mais selon le sinologue suédois H. Bielenstein, au moment de la mise en place des réformes économiques, la véritable cause de sa chute était la série de calamités naturelles (sécheresse, inondation, sauterelles ) entraînant d’abord la famine, puis le banditisme, la révolte et enfin la guerre civile. L’inondation provoqua une vaste immigration des populations vivant dans les zones sinistrées.

Ce désastre amena les réfugiés affamés à se regrouper en bandes pillant les régions qu’ils traversaient et à se soulever contre les troupes gouvernementales censées de les réprimer. Connues sous le nom de Sourcils Rouges (Xích Mi) du fait qu’elles se teignaient en rouge les sourcils, ces hordes ne tardèrent à obtenir la première victoire en l’an 22 et commencèrent à envahir les autres régions de l’ouest. Entre-temps, il y avait des révoltes menées par l’aristocratie Han mais elles avaient toutes été étouffées et matées sévèrement car elles manquaient le soutien populaire. Il faut attendre treize années de guerre civile pour que le clan Liu retrouva confiance en Liu Xiu (ou Lưu Tú), un personnage talentueux et magnanime connu plus tard sous le nom Guangwu (Hán Quang Vũ Đế) pour restaurer l’empire et la dynastie des Han. 

C’est le début de la période des Han orientaux. (Đông Hán). Lors de son avènement au pouvoir, il ne cessa pas d’agir en faveur des pauvres et des esclaves. Contrairement à Wudi, il pratiqua la politique de non-intervention dans les pays vassaux. Pourtant c’est lui qui envoya plus tard Ma Yuan (Mã Viên) pour mater la révolte des sœurs Trưng Trắc Trưng Nhị dans le territoire des Yue. Il était considéré comme l’un des grands empereurs de la dynastie des Han avec Wudi par les historiens. 

Lors des fouilles archéologiques, on sait que les fils des Han furent en avance sur les Romains dans plusieurs domaines à cette époque. Ils furent les premiers à inventer un produit permettant de véhiculer leur pensée et leur savoir. Ils l’appelaient souvent sous le nom « zhi » ou (giấy ou papier en français). En 105 de notre ère, un eunuque de nom Cai Lun (Thái Luân) de la cour impériale observant la façon dont les guêpes se servaient pour mastiquer les fibres de bois dans la construction de leur nid cartonné, eût l’idée de les imiter et inventa ainsi le papier qui sera présenté plus tard à l’empereur Hedi (Hán Hòa Đế) de la dynastie des Han orientaux. (Đông Hán). L’archéologie a contredit récemment cette version car on a retrouvé des fragments de papiers issus des fibres végétales nettement antérieurs à l’époque de Cai Lun, certains datant du règne de Wudi et d’autres exhumés des tombes de la fin des Han occidentaux et du début des Han orientaux. Il est très fréquent de relever les incohérences chronologiques que les Chinois ont voulu introduire délibérément dans leur histoire traditionnelle établie jusque-là par les dynasties, en particulier celle des Qin et de Han, dans l’orthodoxie confucéenne et dans la période de conquête et d’annexion de nouveaux territoires si on continue à avoir un esprit cartésien.

Les démiurges chinois tels que Fuxi (Phục Hi) , Nuwa (Nữ Oa), Pangu (Bàn Cổ), Shennong (Thần Nông) ont été empruntés aux populations méridionales. C’est le cas du grand érudit chinois Ruey Yih-Fu qui voit en Fuxi et Nuwa un trait culturel spécifique des Nan Man (Man Di) (Barbares du Sud) ou celui de Le Blanc, le traducteur de Huainanzi (Hoài Nam Tử). Pour ce dernier, le cycle de Fuxi-Nuwa est une tradition du royaume de Chu (Sỡ Quốc). Les fils des Han introduisaient même dans leur littérature un mythe de création Pangu recueilli chez les ancêtres de Yao (Baptandier). L’archéologue chinois Yan Wenming décrit cela comme le produit unique d’une multiplicité d’origines ou il faut être comme le sinologue célèbre Chang Kwang-Chih pour parler d’un phénomène au sein d’une sphère d’interaction culturelle.  Lire la suite

Dynastie des Han: Art de vivre

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Art de vivre

Sous les Han, la société chinoise était tellement structurée de manière que seuls, les lettrés et paysans fussent bien respectés par rapport aux artisans et aux commerçants selon le Hanshu de Ban Gu au 1er siècle. Pourtant il n’y a que ces derniers qui profitaient ainsi du système économique de l’empire malgré une grande quantité de restrictions imposées par le pouvoir impérial. La multiplication des entreprises privées et l’ouverture des routes commerciales (route de la soie par exemple) leur permirent de s’enrichir facilement. Ils vendaient des commodités et des luxueuses marchandises superflues très prisées par l’aristocratie Han et les propriétaires terriens. Grâce à l’art funéraire, on est amené à tirer des enseignements utiles sur l’art de vivre ainsi que celui de divertissement de cette époque. La soie est réservée pour la cour, la noblesse et les officiels tandis que le lin est pour le peuple, dans son costume traditionnel agrémenté d’accessoires illustrant ainsi son statut social. La soie connait un remarquable essor car elle fait l’objet d’un commerce de luxe mais elle est utilisée aussi dans le système de tribut pour les Xiongnu et les pays vassaux. En 1 avant J.C., les dons de soie atteignirent leur maximum avec 370 vêtements , 30.000 rouleaux de soieries et 30000 jin de bourre de soie. Les commerçants profitèrent des échanges pour lancer un commerce lucratif avec les étrangers, en particulier avec les Parthes et les Romains. Des ateliers privés firent concurrence aux ateliers impériaux.

Bannière funéraire trouvée dans le cercueil de madame Dai

Cela favorisa la production de la soie et amplifia la diversité régionale. Le tissage révèle un haut niveau de technicité car une chemise de soie longue de 1,28 m et d’une envergure de 1,90 m trouvée dans la sépulture de la marquise Dai ne pesait que 49 grammes. Outre la bannière de soie recouvrant le cercueil de la défunte et décorée de peintures illustrant la cosmogonie taoïste, on a découvert de plus les manuscrits sur soie (Yijing (Di Kinh), deux copies de Daodejing (Đạo Đức Kinh), deux traités médicaux et deux textes sur le Yin-Yang, trois cartes dans l’une des trois tombes de Mawangdui, certains étant écrits dans un mélange de lishu (écriture des scribes) et de xiaozhuan (petite écriture sigillaire) datant du règne de Gaozu (Hán Cao Tổ), d’autres rédigés complètement en lishu datant du règne de Wendi. Malgré son prix onéreux, la soie est préférée car elle est plus maniable, plus légère et plus facile à transporter par rapport aux fiches en bois. Sous les Han, la laque dont le travail est encore considéré comme un artisanat raffiné, commença à envahir les demeures des riches.

Ceux-ci, à l’imitation de l’aristocratie du royaume de Chu, se servaient pour la table, de la vaisselle en bois laqué, le plus souvent rouge à l’intérieur et noir à l’extérieur avec des motifs peints rehaussés, ces couleurs correspondant bien à celles du Yin (noir) et du Yang (rouge).

Il en est de même pour les plateaux et les boîtes destinées à ranger les vêtements pliés, les objets de toilette, les manuscrits etc.. Pour les familles princières, c’est le jade qui remplace le laque. Quant aux gens du peuple, la céramique est utilisée  avec le bois pour leur vaisselle. Semblables à des plateaux individuels circulaires ou rectangulaires, les tables basses, en général sur pieds, sont utilisées pour servir les repas. Ceux-ci sont bien garnis avec plats, baguettes (kuaizi), cuillères, coupes à oreilles erbei pour boire de l’eau et de l’alcool. En ce qui concerne la nourriture de base, le millet et le riz sont les céréales les plus appréciées.

Le millet est réservé pour les jours de fête dans le nord de la Chine tandis que le riz, produit de l’ancien royaume de Chu, est cantonné dans le Sud de la Chine car il s’agit d’un produit de luxe. Pour les pauvres, le blé et le soja restent dominants dans leur repas. L’alimentation chinoise est à peu près identique à ce qu’elle était à l’époque de Qin. Le geng, une sorte de ragoût, reste le plat traditionnel des Chinois où sont mélangés des morceaux de viande et des légumes. Mais, suite à l’expansion territoriale et à l’arrivée et l’acclimatation de nouveaux produits venant d’autres coins de l’empire, les innovations commencent à apparaître peu à peu dans la fabrication des nouilles, des plats  à la vapeur ainsi que des gâteaux à partir de la farine de blé.

Le rôti, le bouilli, le frit, la cuisson à l’étouffée et à la vapeur font partie des modes de cuisson. On se sert de la natte pour s’asseoir dans toutes les couches de la société jusqu’à la fin de la dynastie. Elle est maintenue en place aux quatre coins par des petits poids en bronze et de forme sphérique représentant des animaux lovés: tigres, léopards, cerfs, moutons etc. Pour pallier à l’inconfort provoqué par la station agenouillée sur les talons, on se sert des appui-dos ou des appui-bras en bois laqué. La natte est employée aussi dans le centre et le sud de la Chine par les gens modestes pour dormir. Par contre dans le nord de la Chine, à cause du froid, on doit recourir à un kang, une sorte de lit en terre revêtu de briques et recouvert de nattes et de couvertures. Sous ce kang, il y a un système de canalisations permettant de diffuser la chaleur entretenue à partir d’un foyer situé à l’intérieur ou à l’extérieur de la maison.

Loisirs et plaisirs ne sont pas oubliés non plus au temps des Han

Grâce aux textes, on sait que la tradition musicale de Chu a tenu une place importante dans la cour des Han qui continuait à l’apprécier. Selon le sinologue français J.P. Diény, les Han préférèrent à toute autre musique celle qui faisait pleurer. Les thèmes favoris dans les chansons tournaient autour de la séparation, de la fuite du temps et des plaisirs.

C’est dans les tombes princières qu’on découvre les figurines de danseuses (mingqi)(minh khí). Celles-ci révèlent à travers leur geste, l’habileté à tracer des arabesques dans l’air avec les longues manches de leur robe. Les danses basées sur les mouvements des vêtements provoqués par la torsion du corps et par les bras donnent à la danseuse accompagnée par le chant parfois mélancolique, un portrait vivant de l’art chorégraphique des Han. Pour ces derniers, la famille est dans la conception confucianiste, l’unité de base du système social autour de laquelle s’effectuent le culte des ancêtres, les rites, les banquets et les mariages qui donnent durant toute l’année tant d’occasions et de prétextes pour la musique de les accompagner et de rendre harmonieuse la vie. Etant symboles d’autorité et de pouvoir, les carillons de bronze ne peuvent pas être absents. Ils sont utilisés fréquemment dans les cérémonies rituelles mais aussi dans la musique de cour. Grâce aux fouilles archéologiques, on sait que la vie des cours princières Han était ponctuée de banquets, de jeux et de concerts accompagnés de danses et de l’acrobatie. Quant au divertissement, il était réservé uniquement aux hommes. Le liubo (une sorte de jeu d’échecs) était l’un des jeux les plus populaires de l’époque avec le jeu des dés pouvant compter jusqu’à 18 faces. Il vaut mieux jouer plutôt rester oisif, c’est le conseil de Confucius donné dans ses « Entretiens ».

Contrairement à l’archéologie des périodes antérieures, celle des Han nous permet d’accéder au domaine de l’intime comme le maquillage des femmes. Celles-ci recourent au fond de teint de poudre de riz ou de céruse pour maquiller leur visage. Les taches rouges sont appliquées sur les pommettes, les cernes sous les yeux, les mouches sur la joue, la touche de couleur sur les lèvres etc… L’éducation des jeunes fut prioritaire à l’époque des Han. Dès l’enfance, on inculpait l’obéissance, la politesse et le respect envers les aînés. À dix ans, le garçon commençait à recevoir les leçons d’un maître. Il devait étudier les Entretiens de Confucius (Lunyu), la Classique de la piété filiale (Xiao jing) etc. avant d’aborder entre quinze et vingt ans la lecture des Classiques. Considérée comme inférieure à l’homme, la femme était obligée d’apprendre dès son jeune âge le travail de la soie, la cuisine et posséder les qualités majeures qui lui étaient inculquées: la douceur, l’humilité, la maîtrise de soi. Elle devait être soumise aux trois obéissances (Tam Tòng): enfant à son père, mariée à son époux, veuve à son fils. Elle pouvait être mariée vers 14-15 ans dans le but d’assurer la pérennité de la lignée familiale. Malgré ces contraintes confucéennes, la femme continuait à exercer un réel pouvoir au sein de la structure familiale, notamment dans la relation entre mère et fils.

Le souci d’honorer les défunts amène les Han, en particulier ceux de l’Ouest de créer des sépultures extravagantes et de véritables trésors qu’étaient des suaires de jade pour la quête d’immortalité. C’est le cas de la sépulture du père de l’empereur Wudi, Han Jing Di. Pour le moment, les archéologues ont déjà extrait plus de 40 000 objets funéraires aux alentours du tumulus de l’empereur. Il faut s’attendre que tout ce complexe funéraire livre entre 300.000 et 500.000 objets car il reste outre le tumulus, deux fosses distinctes à explorer, celle de l’impératrice et de la concubine favorite Li de cet empereur. Selon un archéologue chinois chargé de cette exploration, ce n’est pas l’importance du nombre d’objets découverts mais c’est plutôt celle de la signification de chacune des trouvailles récupérées dans ce complexe funéraire. On est amené à croire que les Han occidentaux ont l’habitude de priser les monuments funéraires vraiment grandioses malgré leur parcimonie révélée à travers une série d’objets qui sont beaucoup plus petits que ceux des tombes Qin.[RETOUR]

 

Chronologie des Han occidentaux (Suite)

Bông Súng (Nénuphar)

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Dans le jardin de Claude Monet (Givenchy)

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Được xem là biểu tương sự  tinh khiết và yên tĩnh, cây bông súng thường  mọc hoang dã trong bùn. Ở nam bộ Vietnam,  người ta thường ăn mắm kho với bông súng hay  dùng nó để làm món  gỏi  tuyệt vời. Để  bảo vệ một cách hữu hiệu các bộ phận  tựa như nhụy và nhị,  cây bông súng có  được một cơ chế  hóa lý rất tinh vi khi  trời về đêm lạnh rét hay  có độ ẩm cao.  Nhờ có nước  lan tràn vào  các không bào và  có sự biến  đổi của ánh sáng  và nhiệt độ khiến có sự thay đổi ở nơi có  tập trung nhiều ion canxi của các tế bào và dẩn đến việc tạo ra áp suất trên các mặt trong và ngoài của các tràng hoa.  Vì vậy các cánh hoa hay bị méo mó  nhưng không vì thế mà  bị hư hỏng. Chiều  tối lại,  cây bông súng dựng đứng lên các cánh hoa để che chở các bộ phận sinh sản bằng cách làm phòng ra các tế bào của nó. (sự trương nước) Còn sáng lại nó buông lơi  xuống các cánh hoa và làm co lại các tế bào  (sự co lại gọi  là plasmolyse) bằng cách làm bốc hơi nước và giảm đi áp xuất trên các vách tế bào. Tùy thuộc  dáng vóc mà hoa súng có nhiều cánh hoa hay không để nó có thể  dễ dàng đóng khép và bảo trợ  các bộ phận sinh sản.  Đối với các nhà nghiên cứu khoa học, đây không những là chuyện  thăng bằng mà còn là một phát minh tuyệt vời được  tìm thấy  ở các thực vật trước khi con người khám phá ra được các máy bơm nước và cái kích.

Etant le symbole de paix et de pureté, le nénuphar est habitué à pousser sauvagement dans la boue. Au Vietnam, on s’en sert dans le Sud soit pour accompagner la soupe aux poissons (mắm kho) soit pour faire une salade  délicieuse. Le nénuphar possède un mécanisme physique et chimique  très ingénieux permettant de protéger ses organes reproductifs  (étamines, pistils) contre le froid et l’humidité nocturne. Grâce à la pénétration de l’eau dans les vacuoles et aux variations de la lumière et de la température modifiant ainsi la concentration en ions calcium des cellules,  cela provoque la pression sur les faces interne et externe de ses corolles et facilite  la déformation de ses  pétales  sans que ces derniers soient abîmés.  Le soir, le nénuphar  redresse  ses pétales pour protéger ses appareils reproducteurs  par le gonflement de ses cellules (turgescence)   tandis que le matin il les fait retomber  par le dégonflement de ces  mêmes cellules  (plasmolyse) en diminuant la pression sur leurs parois cellulaires  et en perdant de l’eau par évaporation. En fonction de la taille, la fleur du nénuphar doit avoir un certain nombre de pétales  afin de mieux  se refermer et protéger ses organes reproductifs.  Pour les chercheurs, c’est non seulement une affaire d’équilibre mais aussi une invention géniale chez les plantes avant la découverte des pompes hydrauliques  et des vérins par les hommes. 

Galerie des photos

Lis d’eau

Tableau nénuphar de Monet

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Being the symbol of  peace and purity, the water lily is accustomed to grown savagely in the mud. In Vietnam, it is used either by accompagnying the fish soup in the South region or by making a delicious salad. The water lily has a chemical and physical mechanism very ingeniuos allowing to protect its reproductive organs (stamen, pistil)  against the cold and  night humidity. Thanks the water penetration in vacuoles and  variations in light and temperature, thereby altering  calcium ion concentration in cells, it causes  the pressure on the internal and external faces of its corollas  and facilitates  the deformation of its petals without  the latter being damaged. At night, the water lily adjustes its petals for protecting its  reproductive system by the swelling of its cells (turgor) while in the morning, its petals fall down by the  deflation of these same cells thanks to the  pressure reduction applied on their cell walls (plasmolysis)  and the loss of water by evaporation.

Depending on size, the flower of water lily must have a certain  number of petals for being closed again and protecting its reproductive organs. For scientists, it is not only the balancing act but also an ingenious invention in plants before the discovery of hydraulic pumps and cylinders by men.

 

[Return FLEURS DU MONDE]

 

Fête des mères ( Lễ Mẹ)

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A l’occasion de la fête des mères,  je voudrais dédicacer cette page  pour  tous ceux qui ont la chance d’avoir encore une mère, de lui montrer l’affection et de lui dire un GRAND MERCI. Vous pouvez  agrafer une rose sur votre  veste pour témoigner de la reconnaissance mais aussi de la joie immense d’avoir ce trésor inestimable, ce qu’a suggéré le moine zhen Thích Nhất Hạnh dans son best-seller  » Bông Hồng cài áo » ( une rose agrafée sur la veste) .

C’est aussi ce sentiment qu’a ressenti  feu compositeur Trịnh Công Sơn : Si j’avais un bouquet de roses d’une valeur inestimable, j’aimerais bien l’offrir à ma mère. Malheureusement elle n’était plus là pour le recevoir.

Il n’y a que la rose qui peut symboliser l’affection indescriptible que tout Vietnamien aime réserver soigneusement à sa mère, à celle qui lui a donné la vie mais aussi l’amour de ce pays.

Malgré son niveau d’instruction assez peu élevé, le paysan vietnamien arrive à décrire l’amour maternel d’une manière juste et simple à travers le proverbe suivant :

Mẹ già như chuối ba hương
Như xôi nếp một, như đường mía lau

Ma mère ressemble à une banane parfumée,
Elle est comme du riz gluant cuit à la vapeur ou du sucre provenant de la canne à sucre.

Quand on a l’occasion de goûter une banane « ba hương », on découvre non seulement son saveur mais aussi son parfum et sa substance sucrée. C’est ce que ressent le paysan dans l’amour que sa mère continue à lui donner.

Le suc de cet amour le laisse toujours insatiable. De plus le paysan le trouve exquis comme du riz gluant et mielleux comme du sucre provenant de la canne à sucre.

Mother’s Day

On the occasion of the Mother’s Day, I would like to dedicate this page to those who are lucky to have again a mother. They can continue to pin a rose on their coats with the intention of showing not only the gratitude but also the immense joy to have an priceless  treasure, what has suggested the Vietnamese zen monk Thích Nhất Hạnh in the novel Bông hồng cài áo (A rose pinned on the coat)

It is also this feeling which late talented composer Trinh Công Son felt:

If I had a pink bunch of a priceless value, I would like to offer it to my mother. Unfortunately she was not there to receive it.

There is only the pink which can symbolize the indescribable affection that any Vietnamese likes to reserve to his mother carefully, to the one who   gave him the life but also the love of this country.

In spite of his educational level rather relatively low, the Vietnamese peasant manages to describe the maternal love in a way right and simple through the following proverb:

Mẹ già như chuối ba hương
Như xôi nếp một, như đường mía lau

My mother resembles a scented banana,
She is as sticky rice cooked with the vapor or sugar coming from the   sugarcane.

When one has the occasion to taste a banana “Ba hương”, one discovers not only his savor but also his perfume and his sweetened substance. It is what the peasant feels in the love that his mother continues to give him.

The juice of this love make  him always insatiable. In addition, the peasant finds it exquisite as glutinous rice and sweeter as sugar coming from the   sugarcane.