Les Mayas (Nền văn minh Maya): Partie 2

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English version

Cho đến năm 1950, nhờ  nhà ngôn ngữ nga Yuri Knorosov mà  hệ thống chữ viết Maya được giãi mã.  Ông nầy đã  chứng minh  lối  viết của người Maya trong việc phiên âm là loại logo âm tiết (từ 900 đến 1200 dấu) so với lối viết của người Ai Cập (734 dấu). Rồi đến 1978, nhà nghiên cứu  văn khắc người Mỹ, ông J. Juteson của đại học Stanford đưa vào trong luận án dành về văn tự của người Maya, một ý niệm về việc bổ sung ngữ âm. Có luôn cả văn phạm của người Maya được cung cấp gần đây trong những năm 1980-1990 với các công việc của L. Schele (1982), B. Macleod (1983) và  V. Bricker (1986). Nhờ đó mà sự hiểu biết về lối viết của người Maya đuợc thông suốt từ đây. Ngày nay, có thể khẳng định là chữ viết của người Maya là loại logo âm tiết.  Nhờ sự tiến triển trong việc giãi mã và các cuộc khai quật mà  cái nhìn về người Maya cũng được thay đổi nhất là với những gì họ để lại trong kho tàng tượng hình gồm có hiện nay hơn mười ngàn  văn bản. Muốn hiểu một văn tự của người Maya, chúng ta phải đọc từ trái qua phải và từ trên xuống dưới.

Trước đây, chúng ta thường cho rằng người Maya là những người hiền hòa so với người Aztec hiếu chiến. Nhưng nhờ những khám phá khảo cổ gần đây về một số văn bản chữ tượng hình bao gồm các cột (hoặc tấm bia) kỷ niệm, bàn thờ, bản treo tường vân vân…  chúng ta mới  biết rằng họ cũng rất  ưa thích chiến tranh. Đế chế của họ không dựa trên một tổ chức tập trung như của người Inca ở dãy núi Andes. Tuy nhiên, giống như người Hy Lạp, họ sống tập trung ở các thành bang và liên tục chiến đấu với nhau để chiếm quyền  bá chủ. Họ đôi khi được gọi là người Hy Lạp của thế giới mới.

Trong mỗi thành phố, có một vị vua thần linh, người nầy được giao nhiệm vụ làm trung gian giữa  thần dân và thế giới thần linh, tựa như  pháp sư thời xưa. Ngoài việc cung cấp thực phẩm và dùng  sức  dành được  chiến thắng chống lại kẻ thù của mình, nhà vua cần phải bắt tù nhân  để hiến tế máu sau đó  và  mong có được ân huệ của các vị thần linh nhằm đảm bảo sự vĩnh cửu của thành phố của mình trước những thảm họa thiên nhiên (động đất, bão, biến đổi khí hậu vân vân). Người ta cũng thường thấy các chức sắc  cao cấp Maya thực hiện nghi lễ trích  máu với dao bằng bạch kim hoặc cái gai nhọn của con cá đuối. Mặc dù họ đã phải chịu đựng những hình thức đau đớn trên lưỡi và dương vật của họ, họ vẫn thấy rằng đây là  hành động tự nguyện của họ, một sự hy sinh cao cả, vì máu được coi là tài sản quý giá nhất của con người, được dùng để duy trì trật tự vũ trụ và lợi ích của triều đại.

Các lễ vật cúng  được thấy rất nhiều và đa dạng. Ngoài máu, họ còn có thể nuôi dưỡng các vị thần bằng mùi và vị. Đôi khi, theo truyền thống của họ, họ quen ném nạn nhân, đặc biệt là các cô gái và trẻ em còn trinh, xuống giếng (hoặc cenote). Đây là trường hợp của Giếng Hy sinh tại Chichen Itza, nơi xương người được tìm thấy (13 sọ của đàn ông, 21 trẻ em và 8 phụ nữ) nhờ quá trình thoát nước được thực hiện bởi các nhà khảo cổ học. Người cai tri (hay lãnh chúa) hay thường tổ chức việc thờ cúng các thần thánh này nên được họ bảo vệ và tôn trọng trong tư tưởng của người Maya. Chính vì thế khi qua đời, lãnh chúa  được đi theo con đường  gắn liền với  sự chuyển động vũ trụ của mặt trời hay mặt trăng để xâm nhập vào âm phủ (thế giới ngầm) và tái sinh ở thiên giới để trở thành một thần thánh nhờ sức mạnh siêu nhiên được ban cho bởi  các vị thần. Mặt khác, đối với một người Maya bình thường thì  người nầy phải chết trong địa ngục sau một hành trình gian nan đầy nguy hiểm nhưng có thể trở lại trần gian trong một số dịp nhất định với sự đồng ý của thần chết để tham gia vào các nghi lễ do con cháu người nầy thực hiện.

Sự tôn kính mà người Maya bày tỏ với các vị thần của họ thông qua việc hiến tế con người và sự hy sinh bản thân (sẹo và đâm xuyên qua da thịt) đã làm mờ  đáng kể cho hình ảnh của họ. Đây là lý do tại sao khi đến  lãnh thổ của họ, người Tây Ban Nha xem coi họ là người man rợ tại vì những phong tục nhất định nầy. Tuy nhiên, họ đã phát minh ra con số 0 hai thế kỷ trước khi người châu Âu mượn nó từ người Ả Rập sau các cuộc Thập tự chinh. Số 0 này thường được biểu thị bằng một cái vỏ, một bông hoa và đôi khi là một hình xoắn ốc. Họ quan tâm đến toán học và thiên văn học. Họ biết cách sử dụng riêng các số dương.

Dân tộc Maya là một trong số ít các dân tộc  bị thu hút bởi thời gian. Nhờ biết sử dụng hệ thống vigesimal (dựa trên hệ nhị thập phân), họ đã thiết lập nhiều lịch để dự đoán các sự kiện quan trọng (ví dụ như các lời tiên tri), xác định các ngày quan trọng trong lịch sử và chuẩn bị thời gian thuận lợi cho các nghi lễ để các lực siêu nhiên mang lại tích cực cho nông nghiệp và cuộc sống hàng ngày của họ bằng cách trở lại các mùa màng và thời kỳ màu mỡ của trái đất. Lịch của họ cũng chính xác như lịch của chúng ta. Họ đã có thể tính toán được các giai đoạn của sao Kim và thời gian đồng hành của sao Hỏa với độ chính xác đáng kinh ngạc 780 ngày mặc dù chúng ta biết rằng vào thời điểm đó, họ hoàn toàn không có các thiết bị quang học. Người ta có thể nghĩ rằng ngoài khả năng quan sát và kiên nhẫn của họ, họ còn có khả năng suy luận và kết luận rất xuất sắc. Đây là trường hợp của một trong những đài quan sát của người Maya ở Chichén Itzá, Yucatan, Caracol (hay con ốc sên trong tiếng Tây Ban Nha), nơi người ta có thể theo dõi nơi chân trời  các vị trí khác nhau của các thiên thể (mặt trời, mặt trăng hoặc sao Kim)  từ cửa sổ của tháp. Sự di chuyển của các thiên thể vẫn là một lĩnh vực đặc biệt đối với người Maya vì nó có liên quan chặt chẽ đến việc thờ phượng các vị thần linh. Những vị thần này có mặt ở khắp mọi nơi, ngay cả trong thế giới bên dưới, nơi có nhiều vị thần linh  và nhiều cấp độ (9 vị thần, 9 tầng dưới đất).

[ Trở về Người Maya : Phần 1]

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Malgré cela, une percée significative dans le déchiffrement de l’écriture maya eut lieu dans les années 1950 grâce aux travaux du linguiste russe Yuri Knorosov. Ce dernier parvint à prouver que l’écriture utilisée par les Mayas pour la transcription de leur langue, était de type logo-syllabique (de 900 à 1200 signes) comparable à l’égyptien classique (734 signes). Puis en 1978, l’épigraphiste américain de l’université Stanford, J. Justeson introduisit dans sa thèse consacrée à l’écriture maya, l’idée de compléments phonétiques. Même une grammaire se constitua récemment dans les années 1980-1990 avec les travaux de L. Schele (1982), B. Macleod (1983) et V. Bricker (1986). Cela facilite la meilleure compréhension de la tradition écrite par des Mayas.

Aujourd’hui, on peut dire que l’écriture maya est de type logo-phonétique. Grâce à cette avancée dans le décryptage et dans les fouilles archéologiques, on est obligé de modifier la vision qu’on a eue à l’égard des Mayas en saisissant tout ce qu’ils avaient laissé dans le corpus hiéroglyphique composé actuellement de plus de dix mille textes. Pour connaître le contenu d’un texte maya, il faut suivre l’ordre de lecture qui s’effectue de gauche à droite et de haut en bas.

Dans le passé, on avait l’habitude de présenter les Mayas comme pacifiques, comparés à des Aztèques belliqueux et guerriers. Mais grâce aux découvertes archéologiques récentes de plusieurs textes hiéroglyphiques couvrant les colonnes commémoratives (ou stèles), les autels, les panneaux muraux etc…, on sait qu’ils étaient aussi adeptes de la guerre.

Leur empire ne s’appuyait pas sur une organisation centralisée comme les Incas des Andes. Par contre, analogues aux Grecs, ils vivaient regroupés dans les cités-états et ils ne cessaient pas de guerroyer entre eux en quête d’hégémonie. On les appelle parfois sous le nom des Grecs du nouveau monde.

Dans chaque cité, il y a un roi d’essence divine, chargé d’être le médiateur entre ses sujets et le monde des dieux comme le chaman de jadis. Outre la procuration de la nourriture et la force de travail gratuite en cas des victoires contre ses ennemis, le monarque a besoin de faire des prisonniers destinés aux sacrifices de sang dans le but de s’attirer les grâces des dieux et d’assurer l’éternité de sa cité face aux calamités naturelles (séismes, ouragans, changements climatiques etc…). Il est fréquent de voir aussi l’acte rituel de la saignée effectuée par les hauts dignitaires mayas à l’aide d’un couteau en obsidienne ou d’un aiguillon de pastenague. Malgré les mortifications très douloureuses soit sur leur langue soit leur pénis, ces derniers trouvaient dans leur acte volontaire une sacrifice suprême car le sang qui était considéré comme le bien le plus précieux de l’homme, servait à maintenir l’ordre cosmique et les intérêts dynastiques.

Les offrandes étaient multiples et diverses. Outre le sang, ils pouvaient nourrir les dieux avec des odeurs et des saveurs. Parfois, dans leur tradition, ils étaient habitués à jeter dans le puits (ou cénote) des victimes, en particulier des jeunes filles vierges et des enfants. C’est le cas de la Cenote du Sacrifice à Chichen Itza où on a retrouvé des ossements humains ( 13 crânes d’hommes, 21 d’enfants et 8 de femmes) lors du drainage effectué par des archéologues. Le souverain qui célébrait ainsi ce culte divin était traité avec respect et protégé par les divinités dans la pensée maya. C’est pourquoi lors de sa mort, il emprunta le même chemin lié au mouvement cosmique du soleil ou de la lune pour pénétrer dans l’inframonde (milieu souterrain) et renaquit dans le monde céleste pour devenir une divinité grâce au pouvoir surnaturel accordé par les dieux.

Par contre, pour un Maya ordinaire, il devait mourir au fond de l’inframonde après un long parcours périlleux mais il pouvait revenir sur terre en certaines occasions avec le consentement des dieux de la mort pour participer aux rites pratiqués par ses descendants. L’hommage que les Mayas avaient accordé à leurs dieux par les sacrifices humains et les autosacrifices (scarification et percement des chairs) porte un préjudice considérable à leurs images. C’est pourquoi, lors de l’arrivée des Espagnols sur leur territoire, ils étaient considérés comme des barbares à cause de certaines coutumes. Pourtant ils ont inventé le zéro deux siècles avant l’emprunt des Européens aux Arabes après les croisades. Ce chiffre 0 était représenté souvent par une coquille, une fleur et parfois une spirale. Ils étaient férus de mathématiques et d’astronomie. Ils savaient utiliser exclusivement des nombres positifs.

Les Mayas étaient l’un des rares peuples qui ont été fascinés par le temps. Grâce à leur système vigésimal (à base 20), ils établissaient plusieurs calendriers permettant de prédire d’importants évènements (les prophéties par exemple), de fixer les grandes dates de l’histoire et de préparer les moments propices aux cérémonies destinées à influencer positivement l’effort des forces surnaturelles sur leur agriculture et leur vie quotidienne par le retour des saisons et les époques de fertilité de la terre. Leur calendrier solaire était aussi précis que le nôtre. Ils ont réussi à calculer les phases de Vénus et la période synodique de Mars de 780 jours avec une précision stupéfiante bien qu’on sache qu’à cette époque, ils furent dépourvus entièrement des instruments d’optique.

On est amené à penser qu’outre leur faculté d’observation et leur patience inouïe, ils avaient un sens de la logique et une déduction extrêmement remarquable. C’est le cas de l’un des observatoires mayas trouvés dans le Yucatan à Chichén Itzá, le Caracol (ou l’escargot en espagnol) où on peut suivre à l’horizon différentes positions des astres (soleil, lune ou Vénus) depuis les lucarnes de la tour. Le mouvement de ceux-ci restait un domaine privilégié pour les Mayas car il était lié étroitement au culte des dieux. Ces derniers foisonnaient partout même dans l’inframonde où il y avait autant de dieux que de niveaux. (9 dieux, 9 niveaux souterrains).

[Retour à la page MAYA]

Despite this, a significant breakthrough in deciphering Maya writing occurred in the 1950s thanks to the work of the Russian linguist Yuri Knorosov. He managed to prove that the writing used by the Mayas for transcribing their language was of a logo-syllabic type (ranging from 900 to 1200 signs), comparable to classical Egyptian (734 signs). Then, in 1978, the American epigraphist from Stanford University, J. Justeson, introduced the idea of phonetic complements in his thesis dedicated to Maya writing. Even a grammar was developed recently in the 1980s-1990s with the work of L. Schele (1982), B. Macleod (1983), and V. Bricker (1986). This facilitates a better understanding of the written tradition by the Mayas.

Today, it can be said that Maya writing is of the logo-phonetic type. Thanks to this progress in decipherment and archaeological excavations, we are forced to change the view we had of the Mayas by understanding everything they left in the hieroglyphic corpus currently composed of more than ten thousand texts. To know the content of a Maya text, one must follow the reading order which is done from left to right and from top to bottom.

In the past, the Mayas were usually presented as peaceful, compared to the warlike and warrior Aztecs. But thanks to recent archaeological discoveries of several hieroglyphic texts covering commemorative columns (or stelae), altars, mural panels, etc., we know that they were also keen on war.

Their empire was not based on a centralized organization like the Incas of the Andes. However, similar to the Greeks, they lived grouped in city-states and continuously waged war among themselves in search of hegemony. They are sometimes called the Greeks of the New World.

In each city, there is a king of divine essence, responsible for being the mediator between his subjects and the world of the gods, like the shaman of old. Besides providing food and free labor in case of victories against his enemies, the monarch needs to take prisoners destined for blood sacrifices to gain the favor of the gods and ensure the eternity of his city in the face of natural calamities (earthquakes, hurricanes, climate changes, etc.). It is also common to see the ritual act of bloodletting performed by high Maya dignitaries using an obsidian knife or a stingray spine. Despite the very painful mortifications on their tongue or penis, they found in their voluntary act a supreme sacrifice because the blood, considered the most precious asset of man, served to maintain cosmic order and dynastic interests.

The offerings were many and varied. In addition to blood, they could feed the gods with smells and flavors. Sometimes, in their tradition, they were accustomed to throwing victims into the well (or cenote), especially virgin girls and children. This is the case of the Cenote of Sacrifice in Chichen Itza where human bones (13 skulls of men, 21 of children and 8 of women) were found during the drainage carried out by archaeologists. The sovereign who celebrated this divine cult in this way was treated with respect and protected by the deities in Mayan thought. Therefore, upon his death, he took the same path linked to the cosmic movement of the sun or the moon to enter the underworld (underground environment) and was reborn in the celestial world to become a divinity thanks to the supernatural power granted by the gods.

On the other hand, for an ordinary Maya, he had to die at the bottom of the underworld after a long perilous journey but he could return to earth on certain occasions with the consent of the gods of death to participate in the rites practiced by his descendants. The homage that the Maya had paid to their gods through human sacrifices and self-sacrifices (scarification and piercing of the flesh) caused considerable harm to their image. This is why, when the Spanish arrived on their territory, they were considered barbarians because of certain customs. Yet they invented zero two centuries before the Europeans borrowed it from the Arabs after the Crusades. This number 0 was often represented by a shell, a flower and sometimes a spiral. They were keen on mathematics and astronomy. They knew how to use only positive numbers.

The Maya were one of the few peoples fascinated by time. Using their vigesimal (base 20) system, they established several calendars that allowed them to predict important events (prophecies, for example), to fix the major dates in history, and to prepare the right moments for ceremonies designed to positively influence the efforts of supernatural forces on their agriculture and daily life through the return of the seasons and the periods of fertility of the earth. Their solar calendar was as precise as ours. They managed to calculate the phases of Venus and the synodic period of Mars of 780 days with astonishing precision, although it is known that at this time they were entirely deprived of optical instruments.

We are led to believe that in addition to their powers of observation and their incredible patience, they had a sense of logic and an extremely remarkable deduction. This is the case of one of the Mayan observatories found in the Yucatan at Chichén Itzá, the Caracol (or the snail in Spanish) where one can follow on the horizon different positions of the stars (sun, moon or Venus) from the skylights of the tower. The movement of these remained a privileged domain for the Mayans because it was closely linked to the worship of the gods. The latter abounded everywhere even in the underworld where there were as many gods as there were levels. (9 gods, 9 underground levels).

[Return to the page  MAYA]

Les Mayas (Nền văn minh Maya): Partie I

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English version

Người Maya

Theo các nhà khảo cổ học, người Maya có nguồn gốc người Á với  nét mặt. Có thể nghĩ rằng ở trên đất hoang sơ  Châu Mỹ nầy, ông cha họ đến đây khi còn là những người đi săn đến từ Châu Á. Vi đeo đuổi các thú rừng nên họ vượt qua eo biển Béring trong thời kỳ cuối băng hà. 30.000 năm trước, sự lạnh đi hành tinh làm mực nước biển giảm xuống, khiến eo biển Béring hiện tại trở thành cầu nối tự nhiên giữa lục địa châu Á và châu Mỹ.  Lý  thuyết nầy có vẽ thuyết phục và hấp dẫn vì chúng ta nhận thấy ở nơi những người Maya nầy có những kỹ thuật thường được trông thấy ở Châu Á: gốm, việc xe sợi và dệt vải, những khái niệm mang tính chất tôn giáo (saman giáo) và vũ trụ cũng như sự kết hợp các màu và các thần thú ở bốn phương (Ngũ hành). Nhờ nhà thám hiểm người Mỹ, ông John Lloyd Stephens và bạn đồng hành họa sỹ Frederick Catherwood khám phá vào năm 1840, các công trình của thành phố Copán (Honduras) bị bao phủ bởi cây cối và chìm đắm trong sương mù của rừng nhiệt đới,  người ta mới bất đầu quan tâm lại nền văn minh của người Maya nhất là lối sống của họ, những kiến thức khoa học như thiên văn, toán học, kiến trúc, canh nông và nhất là chữ viết của họ. Lối viết nầy rất phức tạp không có dùng đến trong mậu dịch cũng như các văn tự cổ khác. Nó không dành cho giới hạ tầng cũa xã hội mà nó là một phương tiện cho giới qúi tộc và các ký lục để tiếp cận với các thần thánh và hợp pháp hóa quyền lực vua chúa  được xem như ngang hàng với các thần thánh.

Chính vì vậy biết bao nhiêu nhà khảo cứu xem vặn tự của họ là một vấn đề nan giải nhất là khi đoàn viễn chinh Tây Ban Nha xâm nhập vào lãnh thổ của người Maya thì bao nhiêu sách vỡ (hay codex) ở Mani (Yucatan) đều bị giám mục Diego de Landa đốt cả. Qua những công thức nghi lễ được tìm thấy trong các codex với lối viết theo những họa tiết không thể hiểu nổi, ông cho rằng đây là một trở ngại rất lớn trong việc truyền bá đạo công giáo và nó  còn mang tính chất dị đoan mê tín. Có ít nhất 70 tấn tang chứng văn tự của người Maya bị tiêu hủy cùng 5000 thần tượng.

Tuy nhiên ông Diego de Landa là một trong những nhà thời luận xuất sắc về văn hóa Maya. Rất nhiều người không nghĩ rằng ở thời đó có những bộ tộc nghèo đói sống ở vùng đất hoang tàn Copán mà được John Lloyd StephensFrederick Catherwood khám phá là con cháu của những người xây dựng một nền văn minh Maya cổ. Tuy nhiên ở thời kỳ tiền Colombo, họ là một dân tộc duy nhất ở Trung Mỹ đã khảo sát tĩ mĩ một hệ thống chữ viết phức tạp để mang lại sự liên kết chặt chẽ và thống nhất cho nền văn hóa của họ nhất là nó rất phong phú và khác nhau từ vùng nầy qua vùng khác trên phương diện sắc tộc và vật chất. Mặc dầu có 30 thổ ngữ, người ta vẫn tìm thấy một loại chữ viết tượng hình như nhau ở khắp nơi vùng Trung Mỹ dù nơi đó là đồng bằng Yucatan hay là vùng cao nguyên của Guatemala hoặc là vùng đất có các con sông Usumacinta và Sarstoon. Cũng như người Ai Cập với giấy cói và nguời Trung Hoa với sợi dâu tằm, người Maya họ tìm ra việc chế tạo giấy với một loại sợi của cây vả (hay cây sung). Nhờ vậy họ ghi chép lại tất cả lễ nghi tôn giáo, các cuộc quan sát khoa học cùng các biên sử trong các codex dưới dạng các tấm giấy lớn được gấp dựng đứng lại như đàn phong cầm. Vì sự thiêu hủy sách vở do ông Diego de Landa đề xướng nên chỉ còn hiện nay 4 codex của người Maya: codex de Dresde, codex Tro Cortesianus (hay là bản thảo Madrid), codex Peresianus (hay là bản thảo Paris) thì thuộc về các  thư viện Dresde, Madrid và Paris còn  codex thứ tư được gọi là codex Grolier khám phá vào năm 1971 bởi Michael Coe, một nhà nghiên cứu Mỹ ở đại học Yale. [Tiếp theo trang 2]

Les Mayas

Qui sont ces mayas?

Selon certains archéologues, les Mayas ont leur origine asiatique avec leurs traits. On pourrait penser à l’arrivée de leurs ancêtres, des chasseurs venus d’Asie, à la poursuite du gibier sur le territoire vierge d’Amérique en franchissant le détroit de Béring au cours de la dernière période glaciaire. Il y a 30000 ans , le refroidissement de la planète fait baisser le niveau de mers, ce qui permet à l’actuel détroit de Béring de devenir le pont  naturel entre les continents asiatique et américain. Cette théorie reste séduisante et convaincante dans la mesure où on trouve chez les Mayas des techniques rencontrées en Asie: céramique, filage et tissage ainsi que certains concepts d’ordre religieux (chamanisme) et cosmique comme les associations de couleurs et d’animaux célestes aux quatre points cardinaux. (Ngũ hành). Grâce à la découverte des monuments de la ville Copán (Honduras) envahis par la végétation dans les vapeurs de la jungle tropicale par l’explorateur américain John Lloyd Stephens et son compagnon illustrateur Frederick Catherwood en 1840, on recommence à s’intéresser à leur civilisation, leur mode de vie, leurs connaissances scientifiques (astronomie, mathématiques, architecture, agriculture etc.) et surtout leur écriture glyptique. Celle-ci est un système d’écriture complexe et incompréhensible qui n’est pas conçu pour les transactions commerciales comme les autres écritures anciennes. Elle n’est pas destinée à la basse couche de la société maya mais elle est un moyen pour les nobles et les scribes de s’adresser aux dieux et de légitimer le pouvoir de leurs souverains considérés à l’égal des dieux.

Cela décourage un grand nombre de savants et de chercheurs qui qualifiaient avec résignation dans le passé cette écriture maya de « problème insoluble ». Leur déchiffrement devient de plus en plus ardu car lors de l’arrivée des conquistadors espagnols sur le territoire des Mayas, la plupart de leurs manuscrits (ou codex) furent brûlés sur un bûcher par l’évêque Diego de Landa à Mani (Yucatan). Ce dernier trouva dans ces codex des formules de rituel avec une écriture glyptique incompréhensible, une entrave à sa mission de christianisation et un caractère de superstition et de mystification du démon. On estime qu’il fit détruire 70 tonnes de témoignages écrits par les Mayas ainsi que 5000 idoles.

Pourtant il fut l’un des meilleurs chroniqueurs de la civilisation maya. Beaucoup de gens eurent du mal à croire, à cette époque, que ces Indiens misérables vivant à côté des ruines mystérieuses de Copán découvertes par John Lloyd Stephens et Frederick Catherwood, étaient les descendants des bâtisseurs de cette civilisation. Pourtant ils furent, à l’époque précolombienne, le seul peuple d’Amérique centrale à avoir poussé aussi loin l’exploration d’un système complexe d’écriture dans le but de donner cohésion et unité à leur culture autant diverse que variée, d’une région à une autre, au niveau de la composition ethnique et matérielle. Malgré un grand nombre élevé de dialectes (une trentaine en tout), on a retrouvé les mêmes hiéroglyphes, la même écriture en divers points de l’Amérique centrale soit sur les basses terres de tout le Yucatan soit dans les hautes terres du Guatemala ou dans le territoire traversé par les rivières Usumacinta et Sarstoon.

Analogues aux Égyptiens avec le papyrus et aux Chinois avec la fibre de mûrier, les Mayas ont réussi à fabriquer le papier avec les fibres d’une espèce de figuier. Cela leur permit d’enregistrer leurs rites religieux, leurs observations scientifiques et leurs annales dans des codex présentés sous la forme des grandes feuilles de papier plissées verticalement en accordéon. À cause de l’autodafé de livres mayas organisé par Diego de Landa, il ne reste aujourd’hui que 4 codex mayas dont les trois premiers sont: le Codex de Dresde (Codex Dresdensis), le Codex Tro Cortesianus (ou Manuscrit de Madrid), le Codex Peresianus (ou Manuscrit de Paris) dans les bibliothèques de Dresde, de Madrid et de Paris et le quatrième connu comme le Codex Grolier découvert en 1971 par Michael Coe, un chercheur américain de l’université Yale.[Suite: Partie 2]

Who are these Mayans?

According to archaeologists, the Maya people have Asian origins with distinct facial features. It can be thought that in this wild land of the Americas, their ancestors arrived here as hunters from Asia. Pursuing wild animals, they crossed the Bering Strait during the last Ice Age. 30,000 years ago, the planet’s cooling caused sea levels to drop, turning the current Bering Strait into a natural bridge between the continents of Asia and America. This theory seems convincing and appealing because we observe among the Maya people techniques commonly seen in Asia: pottery, spinning and weaving, religious concepts (shamanism) and the cosmos, as well as the combination of colors and mythical animals from the four directions (Five Elements). Thanks to the American explorer John Lloyd Stephens and his companion, the artist Frederick Catherwood, who discovered in 1840 the works of the city of Copán (Honduras) covered by trees and immersed in the mist of the tropical forest, people began to take renewed interest in the Maya civilization, especially their way of life, scientific knowledge such as astronomy, mathematics, architecture, agriculture, and especially their writing. This script is very complex and was not used in trade like other ancient scripts. It is not intended for the infrastructure of society but is a means for the nobility and the elites to communicate with the gods and legitimize the power of kings, who are regarded as equals to the gods.

For this reason, many researchers consider their script to be a very challenging problem, especially when the Spanish expedition invaded the territory of the Maya. Many books (or codices) in Mani (Yucatan) were all burned by Bishop Diego de Landa. Through the ritual formulas found in the codices, written in incomprehensible patterns, he believed this was a major obstacle to spreading Christianity and that it also had superstitious and pagan characteristics. At least 70 tons of Maya written evidence were destroyed along with 5,000 idols.

However, Diego de Landa was one of the most outstanding chroniclers of Maya culture. Many people did not think that at that time there were poor tribes living in the desolate land of Copán, which John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood discovered to be descendants of the builders of an ancient Maya civilization. However, in the pre-Columbian era, they were the only people in Central America who meticulously surveyed a complex writing system to bring close connection and unity to their culture, especially since it was very rich and varied from one region to another in terms of ethnicity and material aspects. Despite having 30 dialects, people still found a similar type of hieroglyphic writing throughout Central America, whether in the Yucatan plains, the highlands of Guatemala, or the lands with the Usumacinta and Sarstoon rivers.

Like the Egyptians with papyrus and the Chinese with silk fibers, the Maya discovered the production of paper using fibers from the fig tree (or mulberry tree). Thanks to this, they recorded all religious ceremonies, scientific observations, and historical chronicles in codices in the form of large sheets of paper folded upright like an accordion. Due to the destruction of books initiated by Diego de Landa, only four Maya codices remain today: the Dresden Codex, the Tro-Cortesianus Codex (or the Madrid manuscript), the Peresianus Codex (or the Paris manuscript) belonging to the libraries of Dresden, Madrid, and Paris respectively, and the fourth codex called the Grolier Codex, discovered in 1971 by Michael Coe ,an American researcher from Yale University  [Reading more: Part 2]

Passages couverts de Paris (Các hành lang cổ kính của Ba Lê)

Passage Colbert

Version vietnamienne

Méconnus jusqu’à une date récente, les passages de Paris redeviennent aujourd’hui l’un des attraits touristiques et architecturaux de Paris. Dans les années 1850, Paris possède au moins 150 passages couverts et exporte le modèle vers d’autres villes françaises (Bordeaux, Nantes etc.) et vers l’étranger (Italie, Turquie, Grande-Bretagne etc.). C’est aussi  un modèle importé de Paris, le passage Eden dans lequel on était habitué à flâner à Saïgon (Vietnam) dans les années 1970.  Ces passages parisiens se regroupent sur la rive droite de la Seine, en particulier dans le quartier des Grands Boulevards. Plusieurs passages ont été démolis au profit de l’urbanisation entamée par les grands travaux du baron Haussman et de l’essor de grands magasins ( Le Bon Marché, la Samaritaine, le Printemps etc.). Il ne reste qu’une vingtaine de passages aujourd’hui à Paris. Ils font partie désormais du patrimoine architectural et mémoriel de la capitale.

Một cuộc du ngoạn thú vị ở Paris
qua các hành lang

 

Les passages couverts  de Paris

  • Passage  Choiseul  (Rue Saint Augustin)
  • Passage Colbert (Rue des Petits Champs)
  • Passage Vivienne (Rue Vivienne)
  • Passage des Panoramas ( Boulevard Montmartre)
  • Passage Jouffroy (Boulevard Montmartre)
  • Passage des princes (Boulevard des Italiens) 
  • Passage du Grand-Cerf ( Rue du Saint Denis ) 
  • Passage Brady ( Rue du Faubourg Saint Denis) 
  • Passage Verdeau (rue de la Grange-Batelière) etc.
Passages_couverts-2

Version vietnamienne

Ít được biết đến trong thời gian qua, các hành lang của Paris trở lại hiên nay là một trong những nơi thu hút du khách ngoại quốc khi đến Paris. Trong những năm 1850, Paris có ít nhất 150 hành lang bao phủ và xuất khẩu mô hình nầy qua nhiều thành phố khác của Pháp như (Bordeaux, Nantes vân vân …) và các nước ngoài như Ý Đại Lợi, Thổ Nhi Kỳ, Anh Quốc vân vân….  Cũng với mô hình nầy mà hành lang Eden được xây cất có một trăm năm và người Saïgon có dip đến đây du ngoạn trong thập niên 70. Các hành lang Paris nầy được tập trung ở hữu ngạn của sông Seine, nhất là trong khu vực được gọi là « Les Grands Boulevards ». Nhiều hành lang bị phá hủy sau nầy trong việc thực hiện các công trình đồ sộ của bá tước Haussman và đáp lại sự phát triển của các cửa hàng lớn như Le Bon Marché, la Samaritaine, le Printemps vân vân … Nay chỉ còn lại khoảng chừng 20 hành lang ở Paris. Các hành lang nầy đươc xem hiện nay là di sản kiến trúc và lưu niệm của thành phố Paris.

Pyramide du Louvre (Kim tự tháp kính Louvre)

 


La pyramide du Louvre au milieu de la cour Napoléon du musée Louvre

Version française

Version anglaise

Theo lời yêu cầu của cố tổng thống Pháp François Mitterand vào năm 1983, kim tự tháp kính  Louvre được xây bằng kính và kim loại ở giữa sân Napoléon của bảo tàng Louvre. Đây là tác phẩm của kiến trúc sư người Mỹ gốc Hoa , ông Ieoh Ming người được nhận nhiều giải mà  trong đó có giải Pritzkert thường đựợc xem là giải Nobel về kiến trúc. Khi kiến ​​trúc sư Ieoh Ming thiết kế kim tự tháp Louvre, ông đã thiết kế nó theo cùng tỷ lệ với kim tự tháp Kheops. Kim tự tháp kính Louvre có bề cao là  21,64 thước với đáy  hình vuông  mỗi cạnh là 35,42 thước. Toàn bộ kim tự tháp được xây bằng kính cùng các khớp nối bằng kim loại , gồm có tất cả là  603 tấm kính hình thoi (losange)   và 70 tấm hình tam giác (triangle). Lúc đầu kim tự tháp là môt đề tài tranh luận sôi nổi vì  có người cho rằng không phù hợp với khung cảnh cổ kính của cung điện Louvre nhất là  với  phong cách vị lai. Nhưng cuối cùng sự kết hợp của hai phong cách kiến trúc cổ đại và hiện đại nó đem lại không những một kết quả mỹ mãn mà còn đem lại một nét đẹp độc nhất ở giữa thành phố Paris, một viên kim cương hoàn hảo của điện Louvre . Kim tự tháp kính  Louvre trở thành hiện nay một trong những  biểu tượng tham quan không thể thiếu xót cùng tháp Eiffel và nhà thờ Notre Dame de Paris khi ai có dịp đến tham quan Paris.

pyramide

Version française

À la demande du feu président français François Mitterand en 1983, la pyramide du Louvre a été conçue et réalisée en verre et en acier au milieu de la cour  Napoléon du musée Louvre. C’est l’œuvre de l’architecte américain d’origine chinoise  Ieoh Ming  ayant reçu plusieurs prix parmi lesquels figure le prix d’architecture Pritzker considéré jusqu’alors comme le prix Nobel de l’architecture.  Quand l’architecte Ieoh Ming imagine la pyramide du Louvre, il lui donne les mêmes proportions que celles du Kheops. La pyramide du Louvre s’élève à 21,64 mètres sur une base  carrée  de 35,42 mètres de côté. Étant réalisé  avec une structure métallique en acier et en aluminium, le tout de la pyramide comporte 603 losanges et 70 triangles en verre. Au début de sa construction, la pyramide du Louvre est l’objet d’âpres  controverses  car selon certains, la pyramide est mal incorporée  dans le classicisme du palais Louvre avec un style futuriste. Mais finalement l’association de deux styles d’architecture classique et futuriste apporte non seulement un franc succès mais aussi un charme unique au cœur de la ville de Paris, un joyau d’architecture  parfait du palais Louvre.  La pyramide du Louvre devient aujourd’hui l’une des attractions touristiques qu’il est impossible de manquer avec la tour d’Eiffel et l’église  Notre Dame lorsqu’on a l’occasion de visiter Paris. (8,9 millions en 2011).

Version anglaise

At the request of the late French President François Mitterand in 1983, the Louvre Pyramid was designed and built in glass and steel in the middle of the Louvre’s Cour Napoléon. It is the work of Chinese-born American architect Ieoh Ming, whose many awards include the Pritzker Architecture Prize, considered until then to be the Nobel Prize for architecture. When Ieoh Ming designed the Louvre pyramid, he gave it the same proportions as those of Kheops. The Louvre pyramid rises to a height of 21.64 meters on a square base measuring 35.42 meters on each side. Constructed from a steel and aluminum structure, the pyramid features 603 rhombuses and 70 glass triangles. At the start of its construction, the Louvre Pyramid was the subject of bitter controversy, as some felt that the pyramid was poorly incorporated into the classicism of the Louvre Palace with its futuristic style. But in the end, the combination of classical and futuristic architectural styles not only proved a resounding success, it also added a unique charm to the heart of Paris, making the Louvre Palace a perfect architectural gem. Today, the Louvre Pyramid is one of the must-see tourist attractions, along with the Eiffel Tower and Notre Dame Church, when visiting Paris (8.9 million in 2011).

 

Aristide Maillol (Jardin des tuileries)

Aristide Maillol

Version vietnamienne

Presque à 40 ans, Aristide Maillol commence à être connu à travers ses chefs-d’œuvre de la sculpture en bronze non pas sur la peinture. Chaque fois de passage au jardin des Tuileries en face de la pyramide du Louvres, je ne tarde pas à prendre quelques photos sur ses sculptures en bronze de femmes nues car elles sont vraiment très belles sur la façon de faire apparaître la beauté du corps féminin. Maillol avec Rodin ce sont deux personnages auxquels le philosophe français Michael Paraire attribue le mot « génie » entre le 19 et 20 ème siècle, chacun ayant un style différent. Rodin se penche vers le réalisme et prône le caractère particulier de chaque personnage dans ses œuvres qualifiées sublimes par Michael Paraire. Rodin se sert de l’argile. Quant à Maillol, il se sert du bronze comme matériau dans ses réalisations qualifiées « beau » par le même philosophe, en particulier ce qui a trait  à la beauté du corps féminin. Ses œuvres sont visibles au jardin des Tuileries, au musée d’art moderne de New York ou au musée Maillol que sa muse Dina Vierny dans les années 1930 a fondé en 1995 à Paris.

 

Version vietnamienne

Mãi đến gần 40 tuổi , ông Maillol mới nổi tiếng qua những tác phẩm điêu khắc chứ không phải qua hội họa. Mỗi lần đến vườn hoa Tuileries ngang mặt Pyramide của bảo tàng viện Louvres thì mình không thể không dừng lại chụp các bức tượng khỏa thân điêu khắc của ông vì nó quá đẹp làm nỗi bật thân thể của người phụ nữ. Ông cùng nhà điêu khắc Rodin đuợc một nhà triết gia Pháp Michael Paraire gọi là hai kẻ thiên tài giữa thế kỷ 19 và 20, mỗi người một phong cách khác nhau. Ông Rodin thì thiên hẳn về lối hiện thực, ca ngợi cá tính riêng của mỗi nhân vật.trong các tác phẩm của ông đươc Michael Paraire gọi là tuyệt vời (sublime). Ông nầy thường dùng đất sét. Còn ông Maillol thì thường sử dụng chất liệu đồng trong các kiệt tác của ông đuợc Michael Paraire gọi là quá đẹp nhất là cái đẹp hoàn mỹ của thân người phụ nữ. Các tác phẩm thường được trưng bày ở vườn hoa Tuileries, bảo tàng nghệ thuật hiện đại ở New York hay ở bào tàng Maillol mà được người mẫu của ông là Dina Vierny ở những năm 1930, thành lâp vào năm 1995 ở Paris.

Sa Huynh culture (Văn Hóa Sa Huỳnh)

Văn Hóa Sa Huỳnh 

 
sahuynh_titre
French version
Vietnamese version

Renowned for its salt marshes and beautiful beach, Sa Huỳnh (*) located in Quảng Ngãi province (Central Vietnam) is also the region where the French archaeologist Mr. Vinet discovered in 1909, not far from the An Khê marsh in Long Thạnh, a strange deposit of 200 funerary jars from a brilliant maritime civilization with the help of a Cham inscription. Thanks to a fortunate coincidence, Mrs. Labarre, wife of a local customs office controller and passionate about archaeology, had the opportunity to resume archaeological excavation in 1923. She soon found another deposit of 120 intact terracotta jars on top of coastal dunes near the village of Phú Khương in the same region. A third site of 187 jars, later reported by the French archaeologist Madeleine Colani in 1934, was located in Tràng Long on a sand dune locally called the « necklace plateau » because of the enormous quantity of necklaces found there.

She was also the first archaeologist to use the scientific term Sa Huỳnh to attribute it to this culture. Then it was the turn of the Swedish archaeologist O. Jansé to discover in 1939 at Phú Khương (Sa Huỳnh) a necropolis of 84 jars. This discovery was revealed late in a brief report. Then further south, near Xuân Lộc, at Hàng Gòn (Long Khánh, Đồng Nai), Dầu Giây, and Phú Hoà, fields of jars similar to those of Sa Huỳnh were discovered despite their location in the area belonging to the Đồng Nai civilization (Văn hóa Nam Bộ) during recent works by E. Saurin (1973) and H. Fontaine (1972).

Earings

van-hoa-sa-huynh


(*) Originally, the name Sa Hoàng was given to this region.
As the word Hoàng was the first name of Lord Nguyễn Hoàng,
the Nguyễn Dynasty subsequently changed Hoàng to Huỳnh.

sahuynh

It is observed that these are from the Sa Huynh culture era, with radiocarbon datings performed on charcoal debris and shards contained in these jars. One must not forget to mention the fields of large monolithic jars and enigmatic funerary stones of Trần Ninh (or Xieng Khouang) (Laos), dubiously attributed to the 1st century AD by Madeleine Colani (1932), which continue to keep all their secrets to this day and leave us with an insatiable curiosity about the connection and influence they might have with the Sa Huỳnh culture. This culture was supposed to have originated from the stone jar culture of Trần Ninh, according to Madeleine Colani in her work titled « Megaliths of Upper Laos. »

Contemporary with the Dong Son civilization in the Red River Delta, this one was flourishing along the Vietnamese coast in central Vietnam (from Thừa Thiên Huế to Ninh Thuận, Bình Thuận) between 1000 BC and 200 AD before the Hinduization of the coastal region. Its sites were largely discovered near dunes, ponds, and rivers. For this reason, it is also called the « civilization of dunes and ponds » (or Văn hoá cồn bàu in Vietnamese). Its traces have been found not only in the Central Highlands (Tây Nguyên) but also in the Cù Lao Chàm archipelago (Quảng Nam), Cù Lao Ré island (Quảng Ngãi), and the islets of Nha Trang (Khánh Hoà), which clearly proves that the people of the Sa Huynh culture were excellent navigators.

Its close contact with the Đồng Nai civilization was no longer in doubt during the excavations carried out at the Giồng Phệt and Giồng Cá Vồ sites (Cần Giờ, about fifty kilometers from Saigon) because some prominent elements of the Sa Huynh culture were found there in terms of pottery and ornamentation. The decoration methods found in the Sa Huynh culture are done either by incision or by impression but rarely by painting. The dotted decoration is very common. It is sometimes incised with crossed lines, on the shell or dotted linearly in triangular areas. The colors frequently used are red and lead black (đen ánh chì). It is believed that as early as the third millennium BC, a common decorative repertoire was established in Southeast Asia (frequency of the double spiral, saw teeth, dotted lines, sinuous bands with hooks, alternating or inverted triangles, etc.) which visibly flourished on the jars and pottery of Sa Huynh.

The sites connected or closely related to the Sa Huynh culture often drew inspiration from it or used it. This is the case with the Kalanay cave on Masbate Island (Philippines), where, according to William Solheim II, discovered burials yielded pottery similar to that of Sa Huynh. However, the Vietnamese archaeologist Hà Văn Tấn believes that this hypothesis needs to be further explored with additional evidence, although it is likely. The Buni culture, which developed from 400 BC to 100 AD on the northern coast of the western part of Java Island, is characterized by clay pottery with incised and geometric decorative patterns, also showing similarities with that of the Sa Huynh culture.

1): W.G. Solheim, 1964, The archaeology of central Philippines. A study chiefly of the iron age and its relationships , 
Manila, National Institut of Sciences and Technology, monograph 10.
(2): Theo dấu văn hóa cổ. Hà Văn Tấn. Nhà Xuất Bản Khoa Học xã hội Hà Nội, Hà nội 1998

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Yin and Yang numbers (Âm Dương: Part 3)


Yin and Yang numbers (Con số Âm Dương)

Version vietnamienne

Version française

We are used to saying in Vietnamese: sống chết đều có số cả (Everyone has their D-day for life as well as for death). Ði buôn có số, ăn cỗ có phần (One has their vocation for trade just as one has their share at a feast). In everyday life, everyone has their size for clothes and shoes. It is noticed that, unlike the Chinese who adore even numbers, the Vietnamese rather favor odd numbers (số âm) over even numbers (số dương).

The frequent use of odd numbers is found in Vietnamese expressions: ba mặt một lời (One needs to be face to face in the presence of a witness), ba hồn bảy vía (three souls and seven vital supports for humans, i.e., one is panicked), Ba chìm bảy nổi chín lênh đênh (very turbulent), năm thê bảy thiếp (having 5 wives and 7 concubines, i.e., having multiple wives), năm lần bảy lượt (several times), năm cha ba mẹ (heterogeneous), ba chóp bảy nhoáng (hastily and carelessly), Một lời nói dối, sám hối 7 ngày (A lying word equals seven days of repentance), Một câu nhịn chín câu lành (Avoiding one offensive phrase is like having nine kind phrases), etc. or those involving multiples of the number 9: 18 (9×2) đời Hùng Vương (18 legendary Hùng Vương kings), 27 (9×3) đại tang 3 năm (27 months) (or a mourning period of three years which actually translates to only 27 months), 36 (9×4) phố phường Hà Nội (Hanoi with 36 districts), etc.

We must also not forget to mention the numbers 5 and 9, each having a very important role. The number 5 is the most mysterious number because everything begins from this number. Heaven and Earth have the 5 elements or agents (Ngũ hành) that give birth to all things and beings. It is placed at the center of the River Map (Hà Đồ) and the Luo River Writing (Lạc thư), which form the basis of the transformation of the 5 elements (Thủy, Hỏa, Mộc, Kim, Thổ) (Water, Fire, Wood, Metal, and Earth).

It is associated with the Earth element in the central position, which the farmer needs to know the direction of the cardinal points. This thus returns to man the center in managing things, species, and the four cardinal points. For this reason, in feudal society, this place was reserved for the king because he was the one who governed the people. Consequently, the number 5 belonged to him, as did the color yellow symbolizing the Earth. This explains the color chosen by Vietnamese and Chinese emperors for their garments.

Besides the center occupied by man, a symbolic animal is associated with each of the four cardinal points: the North by the turtle, the South by the phoenix, the East by the tiger, and the West by the dragon. It is not surprising to find at least in this attribution the three animals living in a region where agricultural life plays a significant role and water is vital.

Ho Tou Lo Chou

(Hà Đồ Lạc Thư)

 This is the territory of the Bai Yue. Even a dragon, so fierce in other cultures, becomes a gentle and noble animal imagined by the peaceful peoples of the Bai Yue. The number 5 is also known as « Tham Thiên Lưỡng Đia » (or ba Trời hai Ðất or 3 Yang 2 Yin) in the theory of Yin and Yang because obtaining the number 5 from the combination of the numbers 3 and 2 corresponds better to the reasonable percentage of Yin and Yang than that resulting from the combination of the numbers 4 and 1.

In the latter, one notices that the Yang number 1 is greatly dominated by the Yin number 4. This is not the case with the combination of numbers 3 and 2, where the Yang number 3 slightly dominates the (Yin) number 2. This favors the development of the universe in an almost perfect harmony. In the past, the fifth day, the fourteenth day (1+4=5), and the twenty-third day (2+3=5) of the month were reserved for the king’s outings. It was forbidden for subjects to conduct business during his travels and to disturb his walk. This may be the reason why many Vietnamese today, influenced by this ancestral tradition, continue to avoid choosing these days for building houses, traveling, and making important purchases. It is customary to say in Vietnamese:

Chớ đi ngày bảy chớ về ngày ba
Mồng năm, mười bốn hai ba
Đi chơi cũng lỗ nữa là đi buôn
Mồng năm mười bốn hai ba
Trồng cây cây đỗ, làm nhà nhà xiêu

Do not go on the seventh day, do not return on the third day
The fifth, fourteenth, twenty-third
Going out is also a loss, let alone trading
The fifth, fourteenth, twenty-third
Planting trees, the trees fail; building houses, the houses collapse.

You should avoid leaving on the 7th day and returning on the 3rd day of the month. On the 5th, 14th, and 23rd days of the month, you would be at a loss if you go out or do business. Similarly, you would see the fall of a tree or the tilting of your house if you plant it or build it on those days.

The number 5 is frequently mentioned in Vietnamese culinary art. The most typical sauce of the Vietnamese remains fish sauce. In the preparation of this national sauce, there are 5 flavors classified according to the 5 elements of Yin and Yang: salty (mặn) with fish juice (nước mắm), bitter (đắng) with lemon zest (vỏ chanh), sour (chua) with lemon juice (or vinegar), spicy (cay) with crushed or powdered chili peppers, and sweet (ngọt) with powdered sugar. These five flavors (mặn, đắng, chua, cay, ngọt) combined and found in the Vietnamese national sauce correspond respectively to the 5 elements defined in the Yin and Yang theory (Thủy, Hỏa, Mộc, Kim, Thổ) (Water, Fire, Wood, Metal, and Earth).

Similarly, these 5 flavors are found in the sweet and sour soup (canh chua) prepared with fish: sour with tamarind seeds or vinegar, sweet with pineapple slices, spicy with sliced chili peppers, salty with fish sauce, and bitter with some okra (đậu bắp) or with the flowers of the fayotier (bông so đũa). When this soup is served, a few fragrant herbs are added, such as panicaut (ngò gai), rau om (an herb with a flavor close to coriander but with an additional lemony note). This is a characteristic feature of the sweet and sour soup of Southern Vietnam and different from those found in other regions of Vietnam.

We cannot forget to mention the glutinous rice cake that the Proto-Vietnamese succeeded in passing down to their descendants over the millennia of their civilization. This cake is tangible proof of the belonging of the Yin and Yang theory and its five elements to the Hundred Yue, of which the Proto-Vietnamese were a part, because in the making of this cake, the generative cycle of these 5 elements (Ngũ hành tương sinh)  found.

(Fire->Earth->Metal->Water->Wood)

Inside the cake, one finds a piece of porkmeat in red color ( Fire ) around which there is  a kind of paste made with broad beans in yellow color ( Earth ). The whole thing is wrapped by the sticky rice in white color ( Metal ) to be cooked with boiling water ( Water ) before having a green colouring on its surface thanks to the latanier leaves (Wood).

There is another cake that cannot be missing at weddings. It is the susê or phu-Thê cake (husband-wife), which has a round shape inside and is wrapped in banana leaves (green color) to give it the appearance of a cube tied with a red ribbon. The circle is thus placed inside the square (Yang within Yin). This cake is made of tapioca flour, scented with pandan, and sprinkled with black sesame seeds. At the heart of this cake is a paste made from steamed soybeans (yellow color), lotus seed jam, and grated coconut (white color). This paste closely resembles the frangipane found in king cakes. Its sticky texture recalls the strong bond that one wishes to represent in the union. This cake is the symbol of the perfection of marital love and loyalty in perfect harmony with Heaven and Earth and the five elements symbolized by the five colors (red, green, black, yellow, and white).

This cake is recounted by the following tale: once upon a time, there was a merchant indulging in debauchery and not thinking of returning to his family, although before his departure, his wife gave him the susê cake and promised to remain warm and sweet like the cake. That is why, upon learning this news, his wife sent him other phu thê cakes accompanied by the following two verses:

Từ ngày chàng bước xuống ghe
Sóng bao nhiêu đợt bánh phu thê rầu bấy nhiêu

Since your departure, as many waves as were met by your boat, so many afflictions were known by the susê cake.

Lầu Ngũ Phụng

 

In architecture, the number 5 is not forgotten either. This is the case of the meridian gate of the Huế citadel, which is a powerful masonry mass pierced by five passages and topped with an elegant two-level wooden structure, the Belvedere of the Five Phoenixes (Lầu Ngũ Phụng).

Seen as a whole, it resembles a grouping of 5 phoenixes intimately perched with their wings spread. This belvedere has one hundred ironwood columns painted red, supporting its nine roofs. This number 100 has been carefully examined by Vietnamese specialists. For the renowned archaeologist Phan Thuận An, it corresponds exactly to the total number obtained by adding the two numbers found respectively in the River Map (Hà Ðồ) and the Luo River Script (Lạc thư cửu tinh đồ), symbolizing the perfect harmony of the union of Yin and Yang. This is not the opinion of another specialist, Liễu Thượng Văn. According to him, it represents the strength of 100 families or the people (bách tính) and reflects well the notion dân vi bản (taking the people as the foundation) in the governance of the Nguyễn dynasty.

The roof of the central pavilion is covered with yellow « lưu ly » tiles, the others with blue « lưu ly » tiles. The main gate, right in the middle, is the meridian gate (Ngọ Môn) paved with « Thanh » stones dyed yellow, dedicated to the passage of the king. On both sides, there are the Left Gate and the Right Gate (Tả, Hữu, Giáp Môn) reserved for civil and military mandarins. Then the two other side gates Tả Dịch Môn and Hữu Dịch Môn are intended for soldiers and horses. That is why it is customary to say in Vietnamese: 

Ngọ Môn năm cửa chín lầu
Một lầu vàng, tám lầu xanh, ba cửa thẳng, hai cửa quanh »

The Meridian Gate has 5 passages and nine roofs, one of which is varnished in yellow and the other eight in green. There are three main doors and two side doors.
To the east and west of the citadel, there are the Gate of Humanity and the Gate of Virtue, which are reserved respectively for men and women.

The number 9 is a Yang number (or odd). It represents the power of yang at its maximum and is difficult to reach. That is why in the past the emperor often used it to show his power and supremacy. He climbed the nine steps symbolizing the ascent of the sacred mountain where his throne was located. According to legend, the Forbidden City of Huế, like that of Beijing, had 9,999 rooms. It is worth recalling that the Forbidden City of Beijing was supervised by a Vietnamese named Nguyễn An, who was exiled at a very young age during the Ming dynasty. The emperor, like each of his palaces, faces south, towards the Yang energy, so that the emperor receives the vital breath of the sun because he is the Son of Heaven. In Vietnam, there are the nine dynastic urns of the citadel of Huế, the nine branches of the Mekong River, the nine roofs of the Five Phoenixes pavilion, etc. In the tale titled « The Mountain Spirit and the River Spirit (Sơn Tinh Thủy Tinh), » the eighteenth (2×9) Hùng Vương king proposed as a dowry for his daughter Mị Nương’s marriage: an elephant with 9 tusks, a rooster with 9 spurs, and a horse with 9 red manes. The number 9 symbolizes the Sky, whose birth date is the ninth day of the month of February.

Less important than the numbers 5 and 9, the number 3 (or Ba or Tam in Vietnamese) is closely linked to the daily life of the Vietnamese. They do not hesitate to mention it in a great number of popular expressions. To signify a certain limit, a certain degree, they habitually say:

Không ai giàu ba họ, không ai khó ba đời.
No one can claim to be wealthy for three generations just as no one is unfortunate for three successive lives.

It often happens to the Vietnamese that they do not complete a certain task in one go, which forces them to perform the operation up to three times. This is the expression they frequently use: Nhất quá Tam. It is the number three, a limit they do not wish to exceed in accomplishing this task.

To say that someone is irresponsible, they refer to them as « Ba trợn. » One who is opportunistic is called Ba phải. The expression « Ba đá » is reserved for vulgar people, while those who keep getting entangled in small matters or endless troubles receive the title « Ba lăng nhăng. » To weigh their words, the Vietnamese need to fold the three thumbs of their tongue. (Uốn Ba tấc lưỡi).

The number 3 also is synonymous with insignificant and unimportant something.It is what one finds in following popular expressions: 

Ăn sơ sài ba hột: To eat a little bit.
Ăn ba miếng: idem
Sách ba xu: book without values. (the book costs only three  pennies).
Ba món ăn chơi: Some  dishes  for tasting. 

Analogous to number 3, the number 7 is often mentioned in Vietnamese literature. One cannot ignore either the expression Bảy nỗi ba chìm với nước non  (I  float 7 times  and I descend thee times if this  expression is translated in verbatim) that Hồ Xuân Hương poetess  has used and immortalized in her poem intituled « Bánh trôi nước” :

Thân em vừa trắng lại vừa tròn
Bây nỗi ba chìm với nước non
………. 

for describing difficulties encountered by the Vietnamese woman in a feudal and Confucian society. This one did not spare either those having an independent mind, freedom and justice.   It is the case of  Cao Bá Quát , an active scholar who was degusted from the scholastica of his time and dreamed of replacing the Nguyễn authoritarian monarchy by an enlightened monarchy. Accused of being the actor of the grasshoppers insurrection  (Giặc Châu Chấu) in 1854, he was condemned to death and he did no hesitate his reflection on the fate reserved to those who dared to criticize  the despotism and feudal society in his poem before his death: 

Ba hồi trống giục đù cha kiếp
Một nhát gươm đưa, đéo mẹ đời. 

Three gongs are reserved to the miserable fate
A sabre slice finishes this dog’s life. 

If the Yin and Yang theory continues to haunt their mind for its mystical and impenetrable character, it remains however a way of thinking and living to which a good number  of the Vietnamese continue to refer daily for common practices and respect of ancestral traditions.


Bibliography

Xu Zhao Long : Chôkô bunmei no hakken, Chûgoku kodai no nazo in semaru (Découverte de la civilisation du Yanzi. A la recherche des mystères de l’antiquité chinoise, Tokyo, Kadokawa-shoten 1998).
-Yasuda Yoshinori : Taiga bunmei no tanjô, Chôkô bunmei no tankyû (Naissance des civilisations des grands fleuves. Recherche sur la civilisation du Yanzi), Tôkyô, Kadokawa-shoten, 2000).
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-Paul Pozner : Le problème des chroniques vietnamiennes., origines et influences étrangères. BEFO, année 1980, vol 67, no 67, p 275-302
-Dich Quốc Tã : Văn Học sữ Trung Quốc, traduit en vietnamien par Hoàng Minh Ðức 1975.
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đồng giữa h ọc giã Việt và Hoa.Tập San Tư Tưởng Tháng 3 năm 2002 số 18.
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Yin and Yang theory: (Âm Dương Phần 2)


French version

Vietnamese version

When speaking of the symbolic couple circle/square, one wants to evoke perfection and happy union. Starting from a square with 4 sides, one can have an octagon by doubling the number of sides. Then by continuously doubling the number of these sides, one finally obtains a circle with no sides. It is the perfect form (perfectissima forma) testifying to absolute perfection. That is why it is customary to say in Vietnamese « Mẹ tròn, con vuông » to wish the mother and her child good health at the time of birth. This expression was handed down by our ancestors to draw our attention to the creative nature of the universe. Roundness and square are the two shapes taken not only by glutinous rice cakes (Bánh Chưng, Bánh Tết) or wedding cakes (Bánh Su Sê or Phu Thê) but also by ancient Vietnamese coins (or sapèques).

The shape of these sapèques is linked to traditional Vietnamese cosmology: the roundness of these coins evokes that of the sky, and the central hole is square like the earth.

Old coin

For the surface area of these sapèques, there is always a percentage to respect: 70% for the round part and 30% for the square part. These two shapes are also found in the bamboo cane held by the eldest son walking behind the coffin during his father’s funeral procession. When the deceased person is his mother, he is obliged to walk backward while looking straight ahead at the coffin. This is the « Cha đưa mẹ đón » (Accompany the father, receive the mother) protocol to be respected in Vietnamese funeral rites. The bamboo of the cane represents the father’s uprightness and endurance.

It is replaced by another plant known as « cây vong, » symbolizing simplicity, gentleness, and flexibility when the deceased person is the mother. The cane must have a round head and a square base to symbolize Heaven and Earth, while the middle part of the stem is reserved for the children and descendants. This means that everyone needs the protection of Heaven and Earth, the education of parents, and mutual assistance among siblings in society. To show respect, the number of times the guest is required to bow in front of the coffin must be a Yin number, i.e., an even number (i.e., 2 or 4), because the deceased person will join the world of darkness with a Yin character (Âm phủ in Vietnamese). According to Vietnamese researcher Trần Ngọc Thêm, everything closely or remotely related to death must use even numbers
(Yin = peace = death)

In the past, it was customary to place a piece of pure gold (Yang) in the mouth of the deceased to infuse the mana contained in the precious metal. Gold, representing the Yang principle, is capable of preserving the body and preventing decay.

At the moment of the deceased person’s agony, their relatives must give them a nickname (or in Vietnamese tên thụy) that only they and their close ones know, with the agreement of the household spirit, because on the anniversary of their death, this nickname will be mentioned to invite them to participate in the offerings and to avoid awakening other wandering souls. That is why it is customary to say in Vietnamese tên cúng cơm to remind that everyone has a nickname. Similarly, a bouquet of flowers offered at funerals must consist of an even number (or yin) of flowers.

Ancestral altar

There is an exception to this rule when it comes to Buddha or deceased parents. In front of their altar, it is customary to place 3 incense sticks in the vase or to prostrate completely on the knees, with the head touching the ground, an odd number (Yang) (con số dương, số lẻ) of times because they are still considered living beings. Likewise, to show respect towards living elderly people, one only performs one or three prostrations. However, in wedding rites, the bride must prostrate before her parents to thank them for her birth and education before joining her husband’s family.

It is the even number (or Yin số chẵn) of times she must perform (i.e., 2 or 4) because she is considered « dead » as she no longer belongs to her original family. There is a custom for the ceremony on the first wedding night. An older woman, who has many children and is considered good and honest, is asked to take charge of spreading and overlapping a pair of braids on the bridal bed: one open and the other placed upside down, symbolizing the union of Yin and Yang.
 

Mẹ tròn, con vuông

In the past, young couples used to exchange a pinch of soil for a pinch of salt. They wanted to honor and perpetuate their union and fidelity by taking Heaven and Earth as witnesses of their commitment. The same meaning is also found in the following expression: Gừng cay muối mặn, reminding newlyweds never to part because life is bitter and deep with ups and downs, just like the pungent ginger and salt that retain their flavor over the years.

For speaking of virtue, one is accustomed to say in Vietnamese: 

Ba vuông sánh với bảy tròn
Đời cha vinh hiễn đời con sang giàu

As three squares can be in comparison seven circles, virtuous parents will have rich children.

By speaking of these three squares, one needs to reminder the square form of rice cake proposed during the new year. This cake constituted by straight lines  symbolizes loyalty and righteousness in the relationship of three submissions « Tam Tòng »: Tại gia tòng phu, xuất giá tòng phu, phu tữ tòng tữ (submission to the father before her marriage,submission to the husband during her marriage, submission to the elder son when widowed).

About 7 circles, one must think of the roundness of « bánh giầy ».  This one  is constituted by a sequence of dots equidistant from the center where there is the heart. This cake is the symbol of  a well-balancel soul that any passion does not bewinder. One finds in this heart the perfection of seven human sentiments: (Thất tình : hỹ, nộ, ái, lạc, sĩ, ố, dục )( Joy, anger, sadness, cheerfullness, love, hatred, desire). Does someone  realize a  ideal moral life if under any circumstances, he succeeds to maintain the loyalty and  righteousness with others and always keeps his equidistant gap in the manifestation of his feelings?

The expression  vuông tròn has  frequently been  employed in a great number of Vietnamese popular sayings:

Lạy trời cho đặng vuông tròn 
Trăm năm cho trọn lòng son với chàng!

I pray to God that  everything should go well and I should  eternally keep  my faithful  hearth  with you.

or 

Đấy mà xử ngãi (nghĩa) vuông tròn
Ngàn năm ly biệt vẫn còn đợi trông

Here is the signification of conjugal love
Despite the eternal separation, one continues to wait  for the  return with patience

or in the following verses 411-412 and  1331-1332 of Kim Vân Kiều‘s best-seller

Nghĩ mình phận mỏng cánh chuồn 
Khuôn xanh biết có vuông tròn mà haỵ

My fate is fragile like the dragonfly’s wing
Does the Heaven  knows that this union is durable or not?

or

Trăm năm tính cuộc vuông tròn,
Phải dò cho đến ngọn nguồn lạch sông

During your life (one hundred years), when you are concerned about your marriage, you must go upstream to the source. (One must inquire about the bride’s family down to the smallest detail.)

This Yin and Yang bipolarity is expressed in various forms in Vietnam. In China, if there is a single marriage genius, in Vietnam there is a couple of male and female geniuses (Ông Tơ Bà Nguyệt). Likewise, in Vietnamese pagodas, there is a couple of male and female Buddhas (Phật ông Phật bà) on the altar instead of a single Buddha. Vietnamese people firmly believe that each of them is associated with a certain number of digits. Before birth, the embryo needs to wait 9 months and 10 days. To say that someone has a happy fate, it is said that they have a « happy destiny » (số đỏ). Conversely, the « unfortunate destiny » (số đen) is reserved for people with a bad fate.

 

NEXT (Yin and Yang numbers)

 

 

Yin and Yang theory (Âm Dương : Phần 1)

yinyangviet

French version 

Vietnamese version

The theory of Yin and Yang continues to be closely linked to the daily life of the Vietnamese and finds its application in all fields. Everything that is fluid, cold, humid, passive, dark, internal, immobile, of feminine essence such as the sky, the moon, the night, water, winter, is of Yin nature. Everything that is solid, warm, bright, active, external, mobile, of masculine essence such as the earth, the sun, fire, summer, is of Yang nature.

This Yin and Yang characteristic is even found in Vietnamese grammar through the use of the words « con » and « cái« . Analogous to the definite articles « le » and « la » in French, these are used to indicate gender in certain restricted cases, but one can also base their use on the « mobile » or « immobile » nature of the object they accompany to indicate its belonging to the corresponding semantic class. The word « cái » is used when the object has the « immobile » character (tĩnh vật): cái nhà (house), cái hang (cave), cái nồi (pot), etc. On the other hand, when the « mobile » state (động vật) is part of the nature of the object, the word « con » is used to precede it. This is the case for the following words: con mắt (eye), con tim (heart), con trăng (snake), con ngươi (pupil), con dao (knife), etc.

The eye moves constantly just as the heart beats. Likewise, the snake moves just like the pupil. The knife is considered by the Vietnamese as a sacred animal. It is nourished with blood, wine, and rice. The same name given to an object can lead to two different interpretations depending on the use of the word « cái » or « con. » The following example translates the mobile (con) or immobile (cái) nature of the object thuyền (or boat in French) used: Con thuyền trôi theo dòng nước (The boat moves along the water). This means that someone is making the boat move with the oar or with the engine. On the other hand, when one says « cái thuyền trôi theo dòng nước » (The boat moves along the water), the emphasis is on the fact that there is no one maneuvering the boat. It is the flow of the water that makes the boat move by itself. This notes the immobile nature of the boat. The influence of Yin and Yang is not unrelated to the way the gender is sometimes attributed to common objects. This is the case with the knife (dao): dao cái (large knife), dao đực or dao rựa (or machete). This observation was noted by Alain Thote, the French archaeologist and sinologist, in his article entitled « Origin and Early Developments of the Sword in China« : The swords of Yue enjoyed great fame in antiquity.

This is the case of the fish entrails sword that the butcher named Zhuan Zhu (Chuyên Chư) used to assassinate the Liao sovereign (Ngô Vương Liêu) of the state of Wu (nước Ngô) during the Spring and Autumn period (Xuân Thu), etc. Some swords bore a name and could be masculine or feminine. The expression « đực rựa, » often heard in conversations to refer to men, comes from the old Vietnamese custom of carrying machetes when going out.

The association of sexes has also been visible for a long time in Vietnam in rice cultivation: the man plows and the woman transplants. The plowshare that pierces the earth (âm) (Yin) symbolizes the male sex (Yang) (dương), while through transplanting, the woman transmits her fertilizing power (âm) (Yin) to the rice plants (dương) (Yang). To denote the perfect harmony in the union of Yin and Yang, it is customary to say in Vietnamese: United, husband and wife can scoop all the water from the Eastern Sea. (thuận vợ thuận chồng tát biển Đông cũng cạn).

Being rice farmers, the Proto-Vietnamese were attached not only to the land but also to the environment because, thanks to natural phenomena (rain, sun, wind, clouds, etc.), they could have good harvests or not. Extensive rice cultivation by slash-and-burn or in naturally flooded fields depended on climate uncertainties. That is why they needed to live in harmony with nature.

They considered themselves the link between Heaven and Earth (Thiên-Nhân-Địa). Based on this notion, it is common to say in Vietnamese: Thiên Thời, Địa Lợi, Nhân Hòa (being aware of weather conditions, knowing the terrain well, and having popular support or national harmony). These are the three key factors of victory often referenced by Vietnamese strategists (Trần Hưng Đạo, Nguyễn Trãi, Quang Trung) in their struggle against foreign invaders. The Vietnamese take this triad (Tam Tài) into account in their way of thinking and daily life.

For them, there is no doubt that this notion has an undeniable influence on the person themselves: their destiny is dictated by the will of Heaven and depends on their birth date. With the external and internal environment of their dwelling, they can receive the harmful or beneficial breath (qi) generated by the earth. The art of harmonizing the environmental energy of one’s place of residence allows one to minimize troubles and promote well-being and health. A flat terrain without undulations or hills is lifeless and lacks qi breath (Khí). The Vietnamese call hills and mountains Dragons and Tigers. Buildings should have a green dragon to the west and a white tiger to the east. The benevolent Dragon must be more powerful than the Tiger (Hữu Thanh Long, Tã Bạch Hổ) that is to say the Dragon mountain must be higher than the Tiger hill. The notion of harmony takes on its full meaning when a site backed by a mountain and surrounded on two sides by chains of hills that protect it from winds dispersing the Chi (or cosmic energy) gives access to a lake or a river where there is water and food essential for life and the accumulation of cosmic energies (Chi).

This model can be found in the case of the historic city or citadel of Huế (Kinh thành Huế). It is oriented towards the south because in the Yi King it is written: the one who governs the country must look towards the south « Thánh nhân nam diện nhi thính thiên hạ thí » (the king turns his face to the south to rule the world). The enclosure of this citadel is a defensive construction with a military character based on the fortress technique of the famous engineer Vauban and encompassing near its southern front the imperial city bounded by a second rectangular enclosure measuring 622×606 meters. Inside this is the purple forbidden city forming the symbolic heart of the empire within a third and last almost square enclosure of 330×324 meters. The interlocking of these three enclosures refers to the Triad (Heaven, Man, Earth).

The southern front of the citadel, where the Meridian Gate is located, follows a convex path along the Perfume River. Resembling a dragon lying in the West, it undulates and rises towards the North, weaving through small hills and making a 90° bend to the East. It first reaches the protective islands of Dã Viên and Cồn Hến before joining the sea. This creates an ideal position (Chi Huyền Thủy) in accordance with the scheme described above, with a green dragon to the East and a white tiger to the West represented respectively by the shell islands (Cồn Hến) and Dã Viên, facing a natural screen symbolized by the Royal Screen Mountain (Núi Ngự Bình).

 

Man can act and influence his own life. By performing benevolent acts towards others, he can find happiness and improve his karma. In the past, there was a Nam Giao or Tế Giao ceremony in Vietnam, organized every year by the court of Hué in honor of Heaven and Earth. It is the emperor’s privilege to annually associate his deified ancestors with the homage paid to Heaven and Earth on a monumental esplanade built in 1806 in the southern suburbs of Huế because he is the son of Heaven. There are three levels corresponding to the triad: Heaven, Representative (emperor), Earth (Thiên, Nhân, Địa).

Each level has its own shape and a different color: the sky is spherical and the earth square (trời tròn đất vuông), thiên thanh địa hoàng (the sky is light blue and the earth yellow). Previously subjected to isolation and fasting, the emperor ascended the esplanade of sacrifices and acted on behalf of his people to ask the natural forces of the universe to improve the environment on earth. The emperor is the only figure qualified to be the intermediary between Heaven and Earth. This triad (Thiên, Nhân, Địa) has often been mentioned in Vietnamese legends.

In the legend of the « The God of Mountains and the God of Rivers (Sơn Tinh Thủy Tinh) » there is a girl named Mi Nương who is sought in marriage by these two spirits, or in the legend of the Kitchen genius myth  (Chuyện Táo quân), the woman is torn between the love of her former husband and that of the new one. In the legend of the « Betel Quid, » the triad (wife, husband, younger brother) is represented by the woman, her husband, and her twin brother who, once deceased, respectively become the betel leaf, the areca nut, and the lime stone. The betel quid well reflects the notion of balance and harmony found in the theory of Yin and Yang. To prepare the betel quid, a little slaked lime is spread on a betel leaf.

Then, orange-yellow colored root bark of Artocarpus tonkinese is added, and finally a betel nut finely sliced is incorporated. The whole mixture is placed in the mouth and slowly chewed. After about twenty minutes of chewing, the remaining quid is spit out. The five tastes can be found in the betel quid: sweet from the betel nut, spicy from the betel leaf, bitter from the root, salty from the lime, and sour from the saliva. Through the image of the fresh betel vine emerging from the earth symbolized by the lime stone and entwining the slender areca palm trunk in this legend, one wants to note the character of the perfect balance between Yin (Earth) and Yang (Heaven) in perfect harmony. The betel quid is the prelude to every conversation (Miếng trầu là đầu câu chuyện), as often said in an old Vietnamese proverb. Acceptance carries deep meaning and amounts to a firm commitment, a given word that no one would think to take back. If the exchange occurs between a girl and a boy, it is equivalent to a proposal of marriage or union. In Vietnamese tradition, the betel quid is a symbol of conjugal happiness. It cannot be missing from marriage rites.

In the civilization of wet rice cultivation, there are other trinities as important as the triad (Heaven, Man, Earth). This is the case with the triad (Thủy, Hỏa, Thổ) (or (in French Water-Fire-Earth)) or the triad (Mộc, Kim, Thổ) (or Wood, Metal, Earth). We need the earth for rice cultivation, water, and fertilizers derived from ashes caused by fire to fertilize the soil. Similarly, plants are used for food and metals to make appropriate tools for agriculture. We notice that these triads have a common element, which is earth. That is why it occupies a central place in the management of the four cardinal points. It is the pivot around which the other four elements revolve. In agricultural life, the most important element after earth is water. It is the phrase: Nhất nước nhì phân (First water, second fertilizer) often heard from a Vietnamese farmer. Since water has a Yin nature, it is attributed to the North direction because it is compatible with cold (winter). On the other hand, being Yang in nature, the fire element of the triad (Thủy, Hỏa, Thổ) is better associated with the South direction with heat and radiation (summer). The wood element clearly recalls plants whose birth often takes place in spring. It is associated with occupying the west direction with the growth of Yang. As for the metal element, which is malleable and can take different forms, it is associated with the east direction, which is linked to autumn.

The Vietnamese find in the theory of Yin and Yang an idea of alternation rather than opposition. Yin and its complementary element Yang form an entity that allows for the establishment of a good balance and harmony. For them, the world represents a totality of cyclic orders constituted by the combination of two alternating and complementary manifestations. It is known that in an opposing relationship, both Yin and Yang each carry the seed of the other within themselves. (Nothing is completely Yin or completely Yang; within Yin there is Yang and within Yang there is Yin). Yin and Yang are considered as the wheel of a chariot. Having reached their end, they begin again. Once their limit is reached, they return again.

A set of popular sayings reflecting the law of causality concretely testify to the mutation of Yin and Yang. That is why it is customary to say in Vietnamese « Trong rũi có may » (In misfortune, there will be luck), « Trong dỡ có hay » (In what seems bad, there is also something good), « Trong họa có phúc » (In misfortune, there will always be happiness). « Sướng lắm khổ nhiều » (The more satisfied the desire, the more one will suffer), « Trèo cao ngã đau » (The higher you climb, the more painful the fall). « Yêu nhau nhiều cắn nhau đau » (The more we love each other, the more we hurt each other). Lost possessions are therefore sometimes the ransom of a human life. This is clearly expressed by the Vietnamese proverb: Của đi thay người (possessions go away instead of people). The factors Phúc (happiness) and Họa (misfortune) must vary inversely to each other.

It is thanks to this Yin and Yang bipolarity that the Vietnamese are accustomed to seeking a good balance in daily life. They try to find perfect harmony with everyone and with nature even beyond their death. This was discovered in the Lạch Trương necropolis (Thanh Hóa), dating back to 3 centuries before Christ, with wooden burial objects (Yang) placed in the North (Yin) and those made of terracotta (Yin) in the South (Yang).

This notion of balance can even be found in the pagoda with the spirits of good and evil (Ông Thiện Ông Ác). It is thanks to this philosophy of balance that the Vietnamese have the ability to adapt to all situations, even in extreme cases. It is also this principle of balance that Vietnamese leaders have continued to uphold in the past during confrontations with foreign countries. To avoid the humiliation of the Mongols, who were defeated twice in Vietnam, General Trần Hưng Ðạo proposed paying tribute to Kubilai Khan in exchange for lasting peace. After defeating the Ming Chinese, Nguyễn Trãi, the strategic advisor to King Lê Lợi, did not hesitate to allow Wang Tong (Vương Thông) to return to China with 13,000 captured soldiers and proposed a vassalage pact with a triennial tribute of two medium-sized statues made of fine metal as compensation for two generals who died in battle, Liou Cheng (Liễu Thăng) and Leang Minh (Lương Minh). Similarly, King Quang Trung showed humility and agreed to send an envoy to Emperor Qianlong to seek peace after crushing the Qing army at Hanoi in 1788 within a very short time (6 days).

We must not forget either the conduct and flexibility demonstrated by the communist leaders in diplomacy during the confrontation with the French and the Americans. The Geneva (1954) and Paris (1972) agreements once again testify to the search for balance or the middle way ingeniously found by the Vietnamese in the theory of Yin and Yang.
In Vietnam, spherical objects (tròn) are integrated into Yang, and square-shaped ones (vuông) into Yin. This tendency dates back to a time when it was believed that the sky was spherical and the earth was square because the ancient Vietnamese had to square the land before they could use it for plowing and building houses. It was in this mindset that the Bai Yue (of which the Proto-Vietnamese were a part) used to divide a portion of land into nine lots based on the character tĩnh (giếng nước, meaning water well). The central lot was designated for building a water well, and the remaining eight lots were intended for constructing houses, thus forming the first housing unit in agricultural society.

The following Vietnamese popular saying: trời xanh như tán lọng tròn; đất kia chằn chặn như bàn cờ vuông (The blue sky is like a round parasol; the earth is firm like a square chessboard) reflects this belief well.The Proto-Vietnamese knew that the sky was round and the earth was square to distinguish between the round aspect of the sky at the moment of its existence (thể) and the square aspect of the earth at the moment of its use (dụng).

 NEXT (More reading Part 2)


Bibilography

–Alain Thote: Origine et premiers développements de l’épée en Chine.
–Cung Ðình Thanh: Trống đồng Ðồng Sơn : Sự tranh luận về chủ quyền trống đồng giữa học giã Việt và Hoa.Tập San Tư Tưởng Tháng 3 năm 2002 số 18. 
-Brigitte Baptandier : En guise d’introduction. Chine et anthropologie. Ateliers 24 (2001). Journée d’étude de l’APRAS sur les ethnologies régionales à Paris en 1993.
-Nguyễn Từ Thức : Tãn Mạn về Âm Dương, chẳn lẻ (www.anviettoancau.net) 
-Trần Ngọc Thêm: Tìm về bản sắc văn hóa Việt-Nam. NXB : Tp Hồ Chí Minh Tp HCM 2001. 
-Nguyễn Xuân Quang: Bản sắc văn hóa việt qua ngôn ngữ việt (www.dunglac.org)
-Georges Condominas : La guérilla viêt. Trait culturel majeur et pérenne de l’espace social vietnamien, L’Homme 2002/4, N° 164, p. 17-36. 
-Louis Bezacier: Sur la datation d’une représentation primitive de la charrue. (BEFO, année 1967, volume 53, pages 551-556) …..

 

 

 

Con rồng cháu Tiên (English version)

French version

Vietnamese version

 Long time ago, Vietnam was a country half-wild, half-cultured, infested with wild beasts that cohabitated with men in deep caves in the forest. Lived then a young man named Lạc Long Quân intelligent and endowed with extraordinary powers. In his vein flowed a bloodstream mixed with the blood of the Dragons form Bách Việt country. During his travels through mountains and valleys, he arrived at a maritime region of southeast Lac Việt. Seeing the population decimated by a marine monster, he took a spear that he got red hot in fire and threw in the mouth of the monster killing it. He cut its body in three pieces which he threw into three different places that received three geographical names: the head was in a mountain named Cầu Dầu Sơn, the body in another mountain Cầu Dầu Thủy and the tail in the islet called Bạch Long Vỹ.

Lạc Long Quân and Âu Cơ


Once the people of Lac Viet in peace, the hero headed for the Long Bien region where its inhabitants were terrorized by a fox which became a monster. The latter often turned itself into a young man to enter villages taking away women and young girls. Lac Long Quan had to fight for three days and three nights before beating the monster and entering its cave to free his survivors. Arriving at the Phong Châu area, he confronted the monster of trees so ferocious he had to turn to his father Kinh Dương Vương to chase it to the South. After having brought peace to the three countries, he was so moved by compassion for such an unfortunate and simple people. He decided to stay to protect and teach them how to grow rice, cook it, cut trees to build homes that sheltered them from rain, wind and savage beasts. He educated them in the family virtues of parents and spouses. The people revered him and considered him as their Chief. They also considered him as their father, the one who gave them their lives.

Before he joined his mother in the Palace of Waters, he recommended to his people, in case of misfortune, to call him aloud: Father. And he would come back right away. Some time later, the Lord of the High Regions of the North, Ðế Lai, leading his troops, invaded Lac Viet while bringing with him his delightful daughter Âu Cơ. De Lai oppressed and fleeced the people who had to supply his army with meat and rice. In distress people called: Father, come back and save us. Lạc Long Quân was on the spot, but did not find De Lai. Au Cơ was there alone, out for a walk amid her servants. Dazzled by her beauty, he took Au Cơ to his palace. Au Cơ herself, charmed by the young man, consented to live with him. Ðế Lai, coming back in rage, sent his troops out to besiege the town.

But Lac Long Quan commanded savage beasts to push him back. Incapable of struggling against such a strong son-in-law, Ðế Lai withdrew from Lạc Việt, leaving his daughter on the strange land.

Lac Long Quân with the monster

Amid their happiness, Au Cơ brought to the world a big pouch from which got out one hundred eggs that gave birth to one hundred sons as robust as their father. When came the time to separate and return to his mother, Lạc Long Quân told his wife Au Cơ : « You are of the race of Immortals. I am of that of the Dragons. We cannot stay together for the rest of our lives. You need to live up high. I need to live down by the sea. So you stay here with fifty children. I will bring the other fifty to the maritime region, we settle on the same land ». From then on, Au Cơ stayed in the mountains with her fifty children. Those became the ancestors of all the peoples living nowadays on high plateaus and mountains (these are the montagnards and minorities ). As for Lạc Long Quân, he descended on the plain, by the sea, with his children that he taught how to clear the land to establish a kingdom there. His eldest son became thus the first king of Vietnam and took the dynastic name of Hùng Vương and called his country Văn Lang.

That’s why Vietnamese are proud of being  » Children of the Dragon, Grandchildren of the Immortal »
(Con Rồng Cháu Tiên).