Traces of Vietnam’s matriarchal system

 

Traces of Vietnam’s matriarchal system.

Version française
There is a time when our people, like other peoples of the world, adopt the matriarchal system. Do we have the opportunity to think about this for ourselves? Certainly not, because at birth, we all took our father’s name, except in France where we are now allowed to add our mother’s name to our name. In the Vietnamese language, we often use words that still bear traces of the matriarchal system, which we never think about, especially since our country has adopted the patriarchal system for so long. We often say wife/husband (VỢ CHỒNG) but never husband/wife (CHỒNG VỢ). We are used to referring to the family line with the term « BÀ CON » where the word BÀ (madam) always precedes the word CON (or child). Sometimes there is contempt in the words when using the following term « gái nạ dòng or divorced woman » where the word nạ refers to the mother’s lineage. According to the writer Binh Nguyên Lộc, this is meant to imply a polyandrous girl. This implicitly means a bad girl.

Today, our country still has a matriarchal system in many places, such as in the Vietnamese highlands with the Cham, Jarai, Ede, Raglai and Churu ethnic groups belonging to the Austronesian language family, or the M’nong and K’ho of the Austro-Asiatic language family. Some claim that our country has adopted the patriarchal system since the annexation of Jiaozhi (Giao Chỉ) by China. This is certainly not true. When did our country abandon the matriarchal system in favor of the patriarchal one? To explore this question further, archaeologists often rely on the way the dead are buried in the tombs of sites linked to the flooded rice civilization. It was certainly not at this time that the Hùng kings of the Văn Lang kingdom ruled with the Phùng Nguyên culture, as succession to the throne clearly operates through patriarchy in the legend, notably the major power always accruing to the eldest member of the family in the social organization of the time.

We also know that the ancestors of the Vietnamese people came directly from the region of the Blue River (Yangtze), based on today’s genetic research data. We need to go back in time and analyze the places where flooded rice was grown in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, because according to Japanese researcher Shin’ichi Nakamura of Kanazawa University, the cradle of rice cultivation must have been there, but given the current state of knowledge, it’s difficult to pinpoint it very precisely on a map.

However, there is the social evolution in the regions of the lower Yangtze River (Hemudu and Liangzhu archaeological sites) during the Neolithic period:

from a diversified economy to an exclusively rice-growing economy

– from agricultural to urban settlement

– from a collective cemetery to a cemetery for individual groups.

Why the Hemudu site? According to French archaeologist Corinne Debaine-Francfort, the oldest Neolithic site in the Hemudu region (Zheijiang) not only yielded the remains of a wooden lake dwelling on stilts, quite different from the mud houses of northern China, but also grains of rice cultivated in flooded fields using hoes made from animal shoulder blades in 1973. It can be said that rice was domesticated at this site dating from around 4770 to 5000 BC. The people living here had both Mongoloid and Australo-Negroid features. When people died, they were buried with their heads facing east or northeast, and most had no offerings. Nor did they have a clearly defined communal cemetery.

On the other hand, they had a common clan cemetery with numerous grave goods. We can see that a matriarchal system was still in place here, as we find the remains of animals such as monkeys, rhinoceroses, deer, elephants, tigers, tortoises etc. This shows that the local inhabitants were still living off hunting and fish.

The role of man is not considered important, as it is not yet necessary to have a social organization requiring many human resources for production, such as tool-making, storing rice in granaries, casting bronze, etc., as well as the distribution of arduous tasks to obtain the desired result during the harvest season. Man seems to have little power and is not allowed to own or inherit land.ing at the time.

On the other hand, in the Neolithic sites of the Liangzhu culture, there is a clear shift in the balance of power between husband and wife. For example, among the funerary objects in individual tombs, agricultural tools such as polished stone shovels are intended for men, while weaving wheels remain the main objects for women. This proves that, at the time, men were the main laborers in the rice fields and women were only responsible for household chores.

In addition, stonecutters were forced to change their trade and became jade cutters. This led to an important period of industrial development and division of labor in society, and fostered the emergence of class distinctions between rich and poor, as well as between aristocracy and religion. Since then, there has also been a contribution to division within the family unit. It was also at this point that monogamy began to appear.  The wife followed her husband to live with his family. The children were also able to live with their parents and family, and took the father’s surname when they were born.  Upon death, husband and wife could be buried together with members of their patriarchal family.

In short, we can say that the Vietnamese followed the patriarchal system very early on, when our ancestors were still living in the Yangtze basin. Consequently, when they returned to the Red River delta, they continued to preserve patriarchy under the Hồng Bàng dynasty with the Phùng Nguyên culture.


Bibliographie:

Annick Levy-Ward : Les centres de diffusion du riz cultivé. De l’Asie du Sud-Est à la Chine. Études rurales, n°151-152, 1999
Shin’ichi Nakamura: LE RIZ, LE JADE ET LA VILLE. Évolution des sociétés néolithiques du Yangzi. Éditions de l’EHESS 2005/5 60e année, pp 1009-1034
Corinne Debaine-Francfort : La redécouverte de la Chine ancienne.  Editions Gallimard  1998.
Bình Nguyên Lộc: Lột trần Việt ngữ. Talawas

Why do the Thai have a piece of history with the Vietnamese people?

 

Tại sao dân tộc Thái có một đoạn đường chung

với dân tộc Việt?

Version française
Version vietnamienne

According to Western scholars such as archaeologist Bernard Groslier, the Thai were grouped with the Vietnamese in the Thai-Vietnamese group, especially as they only founded their country in the 14th century, and there were black and white Thai sub-groups in Vietnam. So, are these the Thais found in Thailand today?

Repulsed by the Tsin of Shi Huang Di, the Thai tried to resist many times. For the Vietnamese writer Bình Nguyên Lôc, the subjects of the Shu and Ba kingdoms (Ba Thục) annexed very early by the Tsin in Sichuan (Tứ Xuyên)(1) were the proto-Thais (or Tay). According to this writer, they belonged to the Austro-Asiatic group of the Âu branch (or Ngu in Mường language or Ngê U in Mandarin Chinese (quan thoại)) to which the Thai and the Tày were attached.

For him, as for other Vietnamese researchers Trần Ngọc Thêm, Nguyễn Đình Khoa, Hà Văn Tấn etc., the Austro-Asiatic group includes 4 distinct subgroups: Môn-Khmer subgroup, Việt Mường subgroup (Lạc branch), Tày-Thái subgroup (Âu branch) and Mèo-Dao subgroup to which must be added the Austronesian subgroup (Chàm, Raglai, Êdê etc.) to define the Indonesian (or proto-Malay) race (2) (Chủng cổ Mã Lai).

The Thai contribution to the founding of the Au Lac Kingdom of the Viet of Thục Phán (An Dương Vương) is no longer in doubt after the latter succeeded in eliminating the last Hùng king of the Văn Lang kingdom because the name « Au Lac » (or Ngeou Lo) obviously evokes the union of two Yue ethnic groups of the Au branch (Proto-Thai) and the Lac branch (Proto-Viet). Moreover, Thục Phán was a Yue of the Au branch, which shows to such an extent the union and the common historical mission of these two ethnic groups in the face of Chinese expansion. According to Đào Duy Anh, Thục Phán was a prince of the Shu kingdom.This is what was reported in Chinese historical writings (Kiao-tcheou wai-yu ki or Kouang-tcheou ki), but it was categorically refuted by some Vietnamese historians because the Shu kingdom was located too far at that time, from the Văn Lang kingdom. It was annexed very early (more than half a century before the foundation of the Âu Lạc kingdom) by the Tsin. But for the Vietnamese writer Bình Nguyên Lôc, Thục Phán having lost his homeland, had to take refuge very young in the company of his faithful at that time in a country having the same ethnic affinity (culture, language) as him, namely the Si Ngeou kingdom (Tây Âu) located next to the Văn Lang kingdom of the Vietnamese. Furthermore, the Chinese have no interest in falsifying history by reporting that it was a prince of Shu ruling the kingdom of Âu Lạc. The asylum of the latter and his followers in the kingdom of Si Ngeou must have taken some time, which explains at least half a century in this exodus before the foundation of his kingdom Âu Lạc. This hypothesis does not seem very convincing because there was a 3000 km walk. In addition, he was at the head of an army of 30,000 soldiers. It is impossible for him to ensure logistics and make his army invisible during the exodus by crossing mountainous areas of Yunnan administered by other ethnic groups who were enemies or loyal to the Chinese. It is likely that he had to find from the Si Ngeou (or the Proto-Thais) everything (armament and military personnel, provisions) that he needed before his conquest.

There is recently another hypothesis that seems more coherent. Thục Phán was the leader of a tribe allied to the Si Ngeou confederation and the son of Thục Chế, king of a Nam Cương kingdom located in the Cao Bằng region and not far from Kouang Si in today’s China. There is a total concordance between everything reported in the legend of the magic crossbow of the Vietnamese and the rites found in the tradition of the Tày (Proto-Thai). This is the case of the golden turtle or the white rooster, each having an important symbolic meaning. An Dương Vương (Ngan-yang wang) was a historical figure. The discovery of the remains of its capital (Cổ Loa, huyện Đông An, Hànội) no longer casts doubt on the existence of this kingdom established around three centuries BC. It was later annexed by Zhao To (Triệu Đà), founder of the kingdom of Nan Yue.

Lac Long Quan-Au Cơ myth cleverly insinuates the union and separation of two Yue ethnic groups: one of the Lac branch (the Proto-Vietnamese) descending into the fertile plains following the streams and rivers, and the other of the Au branch (the Proto-Thai) taking refuge in the mountainous regions. The Muong were among the members of this exodus. Linguistically close to the Vietnamese, the Muong managed to preserve their ancestral customs because they were pushed back and protected in the mountains. They had a social organization similar to that of the Tày and the Thai. Located in the provinces of Kouang Tong (Quãng Đông) and Kouang Si (Quãng Tây), the kingdom of Si Ngeou (Tây Âu) is none other than the country of the proto-Thais (the ancestors of the Thais). It is here that Thục Phán took refuge before the conquest of the Văn Lang kingdom. It should also be remembered that the Chinese emperor Shi Houang Di had to mobilize at that time more than 500,000 soldiers in the conquest of the kingdom of Si Ngeou after having succeeded in defeating the army of the kingdom of Chu (or Sỡ) with 600,000 men. We must think that in addition to the implacable resistance of its warriors, the kingdom of Si Ngeou would have to be of a significant size and populated enough for Shi Houang Di (Tần Thủy Hoàng) to engage a significant military force.

Despite the premature death of a Si Ngeou king named Yi-Hiu-Song (Dịch Hu Tống), the resistance led by the Thai or (Si Ngeou)(Tây Âu) branch of the Yue managed to achieve some expected successes in the southern Kouang Si region with the death of a general T’ou Tsiu (Uất Đồ Thu) at the head of a Chinese army of 500,000 men, which was recorded in the annals of Master Houa-nan (or Houai–nan–tseu in Chinese or Hoài Nam Tử in Vietnamese) written by Liu An (Lưu An), grandson of Emperor Kao-Tsou (or Liu Bang), founder of the Han Dynasty between 164 and 173 BCE.

Si Ngeou was known for the valor of his formidable warriors. This corresponds exactly to the temperament of the Thais of yesteryear described by the French writer and photographer Alfred Raquez:(3)


Being warlike and adventurous, the  Siamese of yesteryear were almost continually at war with their neighbors and often saw their expeditions crowned with success. After each successful campaign, they took prisoners with them and settled them in a part of the territory of Siam, as far as possible from their country of origin.


After the disappearance of Si Ngeou and Âu Lạc, the proto-Thais who remained in Vietnam at that time under the rule of Zhao Tuo (a former Chinese general of the Tsin who later became the first emperor of the kingdom of Nanyue) had their descendants forming today the Thai ethnic minority of Vietnam. The other proto-Thais fled to Yunnan where they united in the 8th century with the kingdom of Nanzhao (Nam Chiếu) and then with that of Dali (Đại Lý) where the Buddhism of the Great Vehicle (Phật Giáo Đại Thừa) began to take root. Unfortunately, their attempt was in vain. The Shu, Ba, Si Ngeou, Âu Lạc (5), Nan Zhao, Dali countries were part of the long list of countries annexed one after the other by the Chinese during their exodus. In these subjugated countries, the presence of the Proto-Thais was quite significant. Faced with this relentless Chinese pressure and the inexorable barrier of the Himalayas, the Proto-Thais were forced to descend into the Indochinese peninsula (4) by slowly infiltrating in a fan-like manner into Laos, the North-West of Vietnam (Tây Bắc), the north of Thailand and upper Burma.

According to Thai historical inscriptions found in Vietnam, there were three major waves of migration by the Yunnan Thais into north-western Vietnam during the 9th and 11th centuries. This corresponds exactly to the period when the kingdom of Nanzhao was annexed by the kingdom of Dali, which was in turn annihilated 3 centuries later by Kubilai Khan’s Mongols in China. During this infiltration, the proto-Thai divided into several groups: the Thai of Vietnam, the Thai in Burma (or Shans), the Thai in Laos (or Ai Lao) and the Thai in northern Thailand. Each of these groups began to adopt the religion of their host country. 


The Thai in Vietnam did not have the same religion as those in other territories. They continued to retain animism (vạn vật hữu linh) or totemism. For this reason, they constituted the ethnic minorities of today’s Viet Nam.

Thaïlande (English version)

 


Version française

Version vietnamienne

The emergence of the Thai only became firmly established in the 14th century. Yet they are an ancient people of southern China. They are part of the Austro-Asiatic group (Chủng Nam Á) (or Baiyue or Bách Việt in Vietnamese). It is this group that the French archaeologist Bernard Groslier often referred to as the « Thai-Vietnamese group.

Repulsed by the Tsin of Shi Huang Di, the Thai tried to resist many times. For the Vietnamese writer Bình Nguyên Lôc, the subjects of the Shu and Ba kingdoms (Ba Thục) annexed very early by the Tsin in Sichuan (Tứ Xuyên)(1) were the proto-Thais (or Tay). According to this writer, they belonged to the Austro-Asiatic group of the Âu branch (or Ngu in Mường language or Ngê U in Mandarin Chinese (quan thoại)) to which the Thai and the Tày were attached.

For him, as for other Vietnamese researchers Trần Ngọc Thêm, Nguyễn Đình Khoa, Hà Văn Tấn etc., the Austro-Asiatic group includes 4 distinct subgroups: Môn-Khmer subgroup, Việt Mường subgroup (Lạc branch), Tày-Thái subgroup (Âu branch) and Mèo-Dao subgroup to which must be added the Austronesian subgroup (Chàm, Raglai, Êdê etc.) to define the Indonesian (or proto-Malay) race (2) (Chủng cổ Mã Lai).

The Thai contribution to the founding of the Au Lac Kingdom of the Viet of Thục Phán (An Dương Vương) is no longer in doubt after the latter succeeded in eliminating the last Hùng king of the Văn Lang kingdom because the name « Au Lac » (or Ngeou Lo) obviously evokes the union of two Yue ethnic groups of the Au branch (Proto-Thai) and the Lac branch (Proto-Viet). Moreover, Thục Phán was a Yue of the Au branch, which shows to such an extent the union and the common historical mission of these two ethnic groups in the face of Chinese expansion. According to Đào Duy Anh, Thục Phán was a prince of the Shu kingdom.This is what was reported in Chinese historical writings (Kiao-tcheou wai-yu ki or Kouang-tcheou ki), but it was categorically refuted by some Vietnamese historians because the Shu kingdom was located too far at that time, from the Văn Lang kingdom. It was annexed very early (more than half a century before the foundation of the Âu Lạc kingdom) by the Tsin. But for the Vietnamese writer Bình Nguyên Lôc, Thục Phán having lost his homeland, had to take refuge very young in the company of his faithful at that time in a country having the same ethnic affinity (culture, language) as him, namely the Si Ngeou kingdom (Tây Âu) located next to the Văn Lang kingdom of the Vietnamese. Furthermore, the Chinese have no interest in falsifying history by reporting that it was a prince of Shu ruling the kingdom of Âu Lạc. The asylum of the latter and his followers in the kingdom of Si Ngeou must have taken some time, which explains at least half a century in this exodus before the foundation of his kingdom Âu Lạc. This hypothesis does not seem very convincing because there was a 3000 km walk. In addition, he was at the head of an army of 30,000 soldiers. It is impossible for him to ensure logistics and make his army invisible during the exodus by crossing mountainous areas of Yunnan administered by other ethnic groups who were enemies or loyal to the Chinese. It is likely that he had to find from the Si Ngeou (or the Proto-Thais) everything (armament and military personnel, provisions) that he needed before his conquest.

There is recently another hypothesis that seems more coherent. Thục Phán was the leader of a tribe allied to the Si Ngeou confederation and the son of Thục Chế, king of a Nam Cương kingdom located in the Cao Bằng region and not far from Kouang Si in today’s China. There is a total concordance between everything reported in the legend of the magic crossbow of the Vietnamese and the rites found in the tradition of the Tày (Proto-Thai). This is the case of the golden turtle or the white rooster, each having an important symbolic meaning. An Dương Vương (Ngan-yang wang) was a historical figure. The discovery of the remains of its capital (Cổ Loa, huyện Đông An, Hànội) no longer casts doubt on the existence of this kingdom established around three centuries BC. It was later annexed by Zhao To (Triệu Đà), founder of the kingdom of Nan Yue.

Lac Long Quan-Au Cơ myth cleverly insinuates the union and separation of two Yue ethnic groups: one of the Lac branch (the Proto-Vietnamese) descending into the fertile plains following the streams and rivers, and the other of the Au branch (the Proto-Thai) taking refuge in the mountainous regions. The Muong were among the members of this exodus. Linguistically close to the Vietnamese, the Muong managed to preserve their ancestral customs because they were pushed back and protected in the mountains. They had a social organization similar to that of the Tày and the Thai. Located in the provinces of Kouang Tong (Quãng Đông) and Kouang Si (Quãng Tây), the kingdom of Si Ngeou (Tây Âu) is none other than the country of the proto-Thais (the ancestors of the Thais). It is here that Thục Phán took refuge before the conquest of the Văn Lang kingdom. It should also be remembered that the Chinese emperor Shi Houang Di had to mobilize at that time more than 500,000 soldiers in the conquest of the kingdom of Si Ngeou after having succeeded in defeating the army of the kingdom of Chu (or Sỡ) with 600,000 men. We must think that in addition to the implacable resistance of its warriors, the kingdom of Si Ngeou would have to be of a significant size and populated enough for Shi Houang Di (Tần Thủy Hoàng) to engage a significant military force.

Despite the premature death of a Si Ngeou king named Yi-Hiu-Song (Dịch Hu Tống), the resistance led by the Thai or (Si Ngeou)(Tây Âu) branch of the Yue managed to achieve some expected successes in the southern Kouang Si region with the death of a general T’ou Tsiu (Uất Đồ Thu) at the head of a Chinese army of 500,000 men, which was recorded in the annals of Master Houa-nan (or Houai–nan–tseu in Chinese or Hoài Nam Tử in Vietnamese) written by Liu An (Lưu An), grandson of Emperor Kao-Tsou (or Liu Bang), founder of the Han Dynasty between 164 and 173 BCE.

Si Ngeou was known for the valor of his formidable warriors. This corresponds exactly to the temperament of the Thais of yesteryear described by the French writer and photographer Alfred Raquez:(3)


Being warlike and adventurous, the  Siamese of yesteryear were almost continually at war with their neighbors and often saw their expeditions crowned with success. After each successful campaign, they took prisoners with them and settled them in a part of the territory of Siam, as far as possible from their country of origin.


After the disappearance of Si Ngeou and Âu Lạc, the proto-Thais who remained in Vietnam at that time under the rule of Zhao To (a former Chinese general of the Tsin who later became the first emperor of the kingdom of Nanyue) had their descendants forming today the Thai ethnic minority of Vietnam. The other proto-Thais fled to Yunnan where they united in the 8th century with the kingdom of Nanzhao (Nam Chiếu) and then with that of Dali (Đại Lý) where the Buddhism of the Great Vehicle (Phật Giáo Đại Thừa) began to take root. Unfortunately, their attempt was in vain. The Shu, Ba, Si Ngeou, Âu Lạc (5), Nan Zhao, Dali countries were part of the long list of countries annexed one after the other by the Chinese during their exodus. In these subjugated countries, the presence of the Proto-Thais was quite significant. Faced with this relentless Chinese pressure and the inexorable barrier of the Himalayas, the Proto-Thais were forced to descend into the Indochinese peninsula (4) by slowly infiltrating in a fan-like manner into Laos, the North-West of Vietnam (Tây Bắc), the north of Thailand and upper Burma.

(1):  Land of pandas. It is also here that the Ba-Shu culture was discovered, famous for its zoomorphic masks of Sanxingdui and for the mystery of the signs on the armor. It is also the Shu-Han kingdom (Thục Hán) of Liu Bei (Lưu Bị) during the Three Kingdoms period. (Tam Quốc)

(2): Race of prehistoric Southeast Asia.

(3): Comment s’est peuplé le Siam, ce qu’est aujourd’hui sa population. Alfred Raquez, (publié en 1903 dans le Bulletin du Comité de l’Asie Française). In: Aséanie 1, 1998. pp. 161-181.

(4):  Indochina in the broad sense. It is not French Indochina.

 

 

 

 

Forbidden Purple City (Huế)

 

Version française

Version vietnamienne

The Forbidden Purple City of Hue is protected by a 4-meter-high brick wall. This wall is further reinforced by the installation of a water-filled moat system, thus encircling the city. Each gate leading into the city is preceded by one or more bridges, but the Meridian Gate remains the main entrance, once reserved for the king. Today, it is the main entrance for visitors.

It is a powerful masonry structure pierced by five passages and topped by an elegant two-story wooden structure, the Five Phoenix Belvedere (Lầu Ngũ Phụng). To the east and west of the citadel are the Chương Đức Gate (7) and the Hiển Nhơn Gate (8), which are very well decorated and each pierced by three passages. The Hiển Nhơn Gate was completely restored in 1977.

World cultural Heritage of Viet Nam

Once you pass through the Meridian Gate, you see the sumptuous Palace of Supreme Harmony or Throne Palace, which can be reached by crossing the Esplanade of Great Salutations (Sân Ðại Triều Nghi). It was in this palace that the emperor, seated on the throne in a prestigious symbolic position, received the greeting of all the dignitaries of the empire. They were lined up hierarchically on the esplanade for major ceremonies. It is also the only building that has remained relatively intact after so many years of war. Behind this palace is the private residence of the king and his family.

 

 

  • 1 Gate of the Midday (Ngọ Môn)
  • 2 Palace of the Supreme Harmony. ( Điễn Thái Hòa)
  • 3 Belvedere of the Lecture or Pavilion of the Archives (Thái Bình Ngự Lâm Thư Lâu)
  • 4 Royal Theatre (Duyệt Thị Đường)
  • 5 Splendour Pavilion (Hiên Lâm Các)
  • 7 Gate of the Vertu (Chương Đức Môn)
  • 8 Gate of the Humanity (Hiển Nhơn Môn)

Vietnamese makara (con kim)

 

Con kìm 

Version française
Version vietnamienne

For so many years, when I have the opportunity to visit temples or pagodas, I am used to taking photos of the sacred animal that is clearly visible on their roofs. I always think I am dealing with a dragon because its head resembles that of a dragon, its mouth being gaping and always swallowing an element of the roof. But when you examine it closely, you discover its very short body and its tail resembling that of a fish. The Chinese are used to calling it Xi. This is their way of calling this legendary creature Makara. This one is used to living underwater and is the favorite vehicle of the goddess of the Ganges River, Ganga. It is therefore an aquatic creature from abroad. Its mouth is so large that it can swallow an architectural element of the roof. Is this why the Vietnamese give it the name « Kìm » (or pincer in French)? Why is it often found on the roofs of temples or communal houses?

According to the Taiping Leibian Encyclopedia, it is a tradition dating back to the Han period under the reign of Emperor Han Wudi and the period when Buddhism began to take root in China. Following the fire at the Bach Luong Palace and at the suggestion of a mandarin to the emperor, the Imperial Court decided to sculpt the statue of this aquatic creature and install it on the roof of the palace because it was capable of extinguishing fire by surfing on the waves, which caused rain when it appeared. This creature henceforth became the symbol of the extinction of fire.

This custom was widespread not only in the Han imperial court but also in popular belief. Our country, annexed by the Han at this time, was no exception in the practice of this cult. Kim thus became the sacred animal of decoration on the roofs of communal houses and pagodas because Vietnamese artists have succeeded today in giving it a specific character in Vietnamese culture over the centuries. It has long since become a purely Vietnamese sacred animal. Everyone forgets not only its Hindu name, makara, but also its origin. 

 

 

Nỗi buồn chiến tranh (Chagrins de la guerre)

Tình gia thất nào ai chẳng co’
Kià lão thân khuê-phụ nhớ ‘thương
Mẹ già phơ phất mái sương
Con thơ  nhỏ  dại còn dương phù  trì

Chinh Phụ Ngâm

 chagrin_de_guerre

Version française

Nhắc đến Việt Nam, người ta không ngừng nghĩ về cuộc chiến, những vết thương lòng  và  các thuyền nhân. Không ai có thể thờ ơ  khi biết rằng có đến 13 triệu tấn bom (265 kg bình quân đầu người) và sáu mươi triệu lít chất tẩy  lá đã được thả xuống  suốt thời kỳ chiến tranh. Có khoảng 4 triệu thường dân Việt Nam thiệt mạng hoặc bị thương, 450000 chiến binh tử vong, 800.000 chiến binh bị thương  chưa kể đến 58.183 lính Mỹ tử vong hay mất tích và  313 613 người Mỹ bị thương. Cuộc chiến này đã chia rẽ vào thời điểm đó không những dư luận quốc tế mà luôn cả dư luận ở Việt Nam. Nó vẫn mãi còn in sâu trong tâm trí của người Mỹ cho đến ngày nay. Trái lại, người Việt Nam khó mà có thể biện minh cho cuộc chiến này khi yêu chuộng công lý, tự do và độc lập. Mỗi người trong chúng ta đều tràn  đầy  tiếc nuối, mâu thuẫn và bối rối vì chúng ta biết rõ nguyên nhân và hậu quả  của cuộc chiến này.


Độc lập và tự do không bao giờ đi cùng nhau trên con đường đi đến hòa bình. Chúng ta tiếp tục ước mơ có một ngày nào đó có đựợc cả hai trên mảnh đất gian khổ này mà chúng ta không ngừng uốn nắn và thấm đẫm nó với mồ hôi và nước mắt từ bao nhiêu thế hệ.


Chúng ta tiếp tục van xin Thượng Đế, đổ lỗi cho người ngoại quốc mà không muốn nhận ra lỗi lầm của mình, không dám soi gương và không muốn nuôi dưỡng niềm hy vọng của cả một dân tộc. Trong quá khứ, chúng ta đã đánh mất quá nhiều cơ hội hòa giải, đưa Việt Nam ra thoát khỏi sự nghèo đói và đưa nước ta trở lại trên con đường thịnh vượng vào buổi bình minh của thế kỷ 21. Đã đến lúc không nên lặp lại những sai lầm mà các bậc tiền bối của chúng ta đã mắc phải trong nhiều năm qua, nên chôn vùi mối hận thù cá nhân vì lợi ích quốc gia và đối xử một cách cao thượng với tất cả những người không có cùng quan điểm chính trị. Rõ ràng là chúng ta không làm điều đó một cách dễ dàng nhưng cũng đỡ đớn đau hơn những gì mà biết bao gia đình Việt Nam phải gánh chịu trong cuộc chiến này, điều mà chúng ta thường gọi là “nỗi buồn chiến tranh”.

Năm 1945, tại vùng đồng bằng sông Cửu Long, một thiếu niên tên Hoàng, xuất thân từ một gia đình địa chủ, sống bí mật ở một vùng ngoại ô cách Cần Thơ không xa cùng với người tình trẻ tên Hương. Họ có được hai người con, một bé trai tên Thành 3 tuổi và một bé gái tên Mai một tuổi. Đáng tiếc, cuộc hôn nhân này chỉ tồn tại trong thời gian ngắn vì bị người thân của họ phát hiện. Họ lên án mạnh mẽ cô vì thật xấu hổ cho gia đình khi biết cô gái trẻ này không ai khác chính là em họ xa của Hoàng. Quá xấu hổ và hối hận, Hoàng quyết định từ bỏ gia đình và nhập ngũ vào quân đội Việt Minh với hy vọng tìm được sự giải thoát trên chiến trường chống lại quân Pháp. Nhờ lòng dũng cảm và chiến công quân sự, vài năm sau Hoàng trở thành lãnh đạo quan trọng của Đảng Cộng sản Việt Nam ở vùng Minh Hải (Cà Mau), miền Nam Việt Nam.

Năm 1954, sau Hiệp định Genève, Hoàng được tập kết  ra miền Bắc Việt Nam chờ cuộc bầu cử dân chủ mới ở miền Nam Việt Nam. Thật không may, vì chiến tranh lạnh và sự đối đầu Đông/  Tây khiến  các cuộc bầu cử đã không bao giờ diễn ra. Việt Nam sau đó trở thành nơi đối đầu và bị chia  thành hai nước cộng hòa, một nước thân cận với khối Xô Viết và nước kia là Việt Nam Cộng hòa. Sau vài năm du học ở Mạc Tư Khoa, Hoàng trở về Hà Nội, vài năm sau và  trở thành kỹ cao cấp  có trách nhiệm,chuyên trong lĩnh vực chế tạo pháo hạng nặng và bảo trì các khẩu đội phòng không DCA trong chiến tranh Mỹ-Việt. Trong thời gian đó, Hoàng tái hôn và bị tử vong  vào một buổi sáng đẹp trời trong hầm trú ẩn  lúc máy bay Mỹ-Miền Nam Việt Nam oanh tạc ở vùng Vinh năm 1964. Hoàng  được truy tặng danh hiệu và được  xem coi là anh hùng dân tộc (hay liệt sỹ).

Về phần Hương, nàng  tiếp tục nuôi hai con ở miền Nam trong khi chờ lúc chồng về. Khoảng hai mươi năm sau, cậu con trai Thành của Hương đã trở thành một trong những phi công trẻ xuất sắc của miền Nam Việt Nam sau ba năm học tập và huấn luyện tại một căn cứ quân sự ở Hoa Kỳ (Houston, Texas). Thành đã thực hiện một số phi vụ  ở miền Bắc Việt Nam và nhiều lần tham gia các cu ộc  ném bom ở vùng Thanh Hóa và Vinh. Liệu một trong những quả bom  vô tình đánh rơi có thể giết chết cha Thành, người mà Thành luôn luôn  muốn gặp lại một ngày khi hòa bình trở lại với  đất nước này? Hai tháng trước khi Sài Gòn thất thủ năm 1975, vào tháng 2, Thành nhận được lệnh bí mật cùng gia đình rời Việt Nam để di cư sang Hoa Kỳ. Cuối cùng,Thành thích ở lại Việt Nam hơn vì mẹ anh vẫn nuôi hy vọng tìm thấy cha mình đang sống ở miền Bắc Việt Nam và gặp lại gia đình đoàn tụ sau bao nhiêu năm đau khổ và chia ly. Thật không may, Hương không bao giờ tìm thấy được chồng mình còn sống. Nàng được biết chồng nàng  đã bị bom Mỹ giết chết và như một phần thưởng, nàng đã nhận được danh hiệu “vợ anh hùng” (hay vợ của liệt Sỹ).

Ngược lại, vì ba năm được huấn luyện ở Hoa Kỳ và hoạt động quân sự nên Thành, con trai Hoàng, bị đưa vào trại cải tạo ở Lạng Sơn, miền Bắc Việt Nam. Thành  phải mất 8 năm để  phục hổi  chức năng. Trong thời gian anh bị giam giữ, mẹ anh, Hương  cứ sáu tháng lại phải đi một chặng đường dài để gặp anh và không ngừng khóc trong những lần đoàn tụ này. Anh ta chỉ thấy mẹ bị mất thị lực và trông tình trạng đáng thương khi anh được thả về. Anh  chưa bao giờ có cơ hội phục vụ mẹ đựợc lâu vì anh  được phép rời Việt Nam định cư lâu dài tại Hoa Kỳ vào năm 1994. Có lẽ, anh sẽ không bao giờ gặp lại mẹ mình nữa năm nay đã 85 tuổi, bởi việc trở về Việt Nam lúc này sẽ là một điều không mơ tưởng.

Câu chuyện của  gia đình này bị hủy hoại  và  khổ đau  bởi cuộc chiến  không chỉ là câu chuyện của đại đa số người Việt Nam mà còn là câu chuyện của một dân tộc tiếp tục xoa dịu  vết thương sâu đậm qua ngày tháng cho cái giá độc lập và tự do.

 

Griefs of war (Nỗi buồn chiến tranh)

 
Tình gia thất nào ai chẳng co’
Kià lão thân khuê-phụ nhớ ‘thương
Mẹ già phơ phất mái sương
Con thơ  nhỏ  dại còn dương phù  trì

Chinh Phụ Ngâm

Familial sentiments, who does not feel them?
Your old parents, your young wife remember you with love
Your mother, under the weight of age, sees her white hair floating like the rime
Your young baby in his tender innocence, needs your protection.

Complaint of the warrior’s wife

chagrin_de_guerre

Griefs of war

Version française

Speaking of Vietnam, people will not stop thinking of the war, its wounds and its boat people. No one could be indifferent when it is known that 13 million tons of bombs ( 300 pounds per person ) and 45 million gallons of defoliant were dumped over during the war. There were about 4 million Vietnamese civilians killed or injured, 450,000 Vietnamese combatants dead, 800,000 combatants wounded not included 58,183 Americans dead or missing in action and 313,613 wounded on the American side. That war divided at that time not only world opinion but also that of the Vietnamese. It continued to engrave on the mind of Americans up until now. On the other hand, it is hard for a Vietnamese to justify that war when one is in love with justice, freedom and independence. There is in each one of us full of regrets, contradictions and embarrassment because we know quite well the causes of that war and its consequences.

Independence and freedom never come together on the road of peace. We continue to dream of having them together some day on that such an arduous land that we never stop shaping it with sweat and tears for so many generations. We keep on imploring God, attribute fault to foreigners without wanting to recognize our own errors, without daring to look to ourselves in the mirror and without wanting to nurture the whole people’s hope. We have lost too many occasions in the past to be reconciled with each other, to bring Vietnam out of poverty and to bring it back to the road of prosperity at the dawn of the 21st century. It is time not to start over the same mistakes that our elders have made for so many years, to bury our personal hard feelings for the national interest and to magnanimously treat all those who do not share our political convictions. To do it is evidently not easy but it is less painful than what so may Vietnamese families have suffered during that war, which we often called  » the griefs of war ».

In 1945, in the Mekong delta, a young man named Hoàng, issue of a landed family, lived in hiding with his young lover Hương at a suburb not far from Cần Thơ.. They had two children, a boy named Thành, 3 years old and a girl named Mai, one year old. Unfortunately, this conjugal union was short lived because it was uncovered by their kins.

They strongly condemned it because it was a shame to the family when it was known that the young woman was no other than Hoàng’s niece. Caught by shame and taken by remorse, Hoàng decided to abandon his family and enrolled in the Việt-Minh army hoping to find relief on the battle fields against the French army. Thanks to his courage and military exploits, he became a few years later an important person in charge in the Vietnamese communist party in the Minh Hải region ( Cà Mau ) in South Vietnam.

In 1954, after the Geneva Accord, he was repatriated to North Vietnam waiting for the new democratic election in South Vietnam. Unfortunately, because of the cold war and the East-West confrontation, the election never took place. Vietnam then became the place of confrontation and was divided in two republics, one close to the Soviet bloc and the other the Republic of Vietnam. After a few years of higher education in Moscow, Hoàng returned to Ha Noi and a few years later became the engineer in charge, specialized in the field of making heavy artillery and maintaining anti-aircraft battery DCA during the American Vietnamese war. In the meantime, he remarried and was killed in a beautiful morning in his bunker during a bombardment by South Vietnamese and American aircraft in the region of Vinh in 1964. He was posthumously decorated and considered national hero ( liệt-sĩ ) since then.

As for his young wife, she continued to raise her two children in South Vietnam waiting for the return of her husband. Her son Thành became some twenty years later one of the brilliant aviators of South Vietnam after having spent three years training in the United States ( Houston, Texas ). He flew several missions over North Vietnam and participated in several rounds of bombardment of Thanh Hóa and Vinh regions. Could one of the bombs he dropped have by accident killed his father, a person he would always like to see again some day when peace would return in this country?

Two months before the fall of  Saïgon in 1975, in the course of the month of February, Thành received the order to discreetly leave the country with his family to resettle in the United States. He finally preferred to stay in Vietnam because his mother always fostered the hope of finding his father alive in North Vietnam and seeing again a reunified family after so many years of sufferings and separation. Unfortunately, she never found her husband alive. She knew he was killed by American bombs and as a reward, she received the title of « spouse of a hero » ( or vợ của liệt sỹ  ). On the other hand, because of his three years of training in the United States and his military activities, Thành, her son, was sent to a reeducation camp located at Lạng Sơn in North Vietnam. He had to spend eight years of reeducation. During his confinement, his mother had to take a long trip every six months to see him and did not stop crying during these reunions. On his release, he only found her to be in a lamentable state with her eyes almost blind. But he never had the chance to serve her any longer because he had to leave Vietnam to resettle in the United States in 1994. Probably he would never see his mother again who is now 75 years old because returning to Vietnam would have been for the moment, an utopia.

The story of this family torn and ruined by that war is not only the story lived by the vast majority of Vietnamese but also that of a people continuing to heal its deep wounds, as the years go by, for the price of independence and freedom.

 

 

Two sisters Trưng (Trưng Trắc Trưng Nhị)

Hai bà Trưng (40-43)

Vietnamese  version

French version

In the territories conquered by the Han, particularly in southern China, Sinicization continued in full swing. This is why revolts first broke out in the Kingdom of Dian (86, 83 BC, 40 to 45 AD). They were severely suppressed. These uprisings were largely due to the abuses of Han officials and the behavior of Chinese settlers, who seized fertile land and drove the local populations back into remote corners of their territory. Moreover, the latter were forced to adopt the language, customs, and religious beliefs of the Han.

In 40 AD, a serious rebellion broke out in Jiaozhou Province (or Giao Chau in Vietnamese), which at that time included part of the territory of Kwang Si (Quang Tay) and Kwang Tong (Quang Dong). It was led by the daughters of a local prefect, Trưng Trắc (Zheng Cè) the elder and Trưng Nhị (Zheng Èr) her younger. As the husband of the elder Shi Suo (Thi Sách) opposed the Chinese assimilation policy brutally carried out by the Chinese proconsul Tô Định (Su Ding), the latter did not hesitate to execute him to make an example against the Yue insurgents, especially the Vietnamese.

This exemplary execution revolted the Trưng sisters and immediately triggered the insurrection movement in the Yue territories. The two Trưng sisters succeeded in capturing 65 citadels there in a very short period of time. They succeeded in liberating approximately 1.5 million Yue from the yoke of the Han. This is in accordance with the liberation of 65 liberated citadels including, from Lưỡng Việt (Kouang Tong, Kouang Si today) to Mũi nậy (Phú Yên): Hai Nan (Nam Hải), Yu-Lin (Uất Lâm), Ts’ang-wou (Thương Ngô), Giao Chỉ (Jiaozhi), Kieou-tchen (Cửu Chân) và Jenan (Nhật Nam).

This is probably the territory of the ancient Van Lang kingdom during the Hồng Bàng period. This is why popular support was so strong and swift at that time and today there are at least 200 sites where the veneration of the Trung sisters is still visible with their altars. (account of Dr. Trần Đại Sỹ during his visit to southern China during the years 1979-1989). They proclaimed themselves queens over the conquered territories and established themselves in Meiling (or Mê Linh). They managed to reign for three years. In the year 41, they were defeated by General Ma Yuan (Mã Viện, Phục Ba Tướng Quân) (Tamer of the waves) because their army was disparate and likely to be annihilated and dispersed according to the historian Trần Trọng Kim (page 31 in his work entitled « History of Vietnam (Việt Nam sử lược »)). They preferred to commit suicide instead of surrendering by throwing themselves into the Hát River.

They thus became the symbol of the resistance of the Vietnamese. They continue to be venerated today not only in Vietnam but also in certain parts of the Yue territories of China (Kouang Si and Kouang Tong). Ma Yuan began to implement a policy of terror and forced sinicization by placing Chinese trusted men at all levels of the administration and by imposing Chinese as the official language throughout the territory of the Vietnamese.

During the Chinese rule, only a very limited number of bronze drums remained because the Han tried to destroy them, as these bronze drums symbolized the power of the local lords. It was through these instruments that these leaders could summon and mobilize all their subjects living in their territory to participate in the war. It was Ma Yuan who wanted to destroy the Viet morale and the ardor to fight the enemy. According to the Book of Later Han (Hậu Hán Thư), the people of Jiaozhi were so excited and showed their ardor in battle that since then, they had to hide their bronze drums to avoid the systematic destruction imposed by the Han.

When we mention the name of Ma Yuan, we are reminded of the story of his bronze column. According to a number of ancient writings, there are six Chinese characters engraved on this bronze column: “Đồng trụ triệt, Giao chỉ diệt (The destroyed column, the vanished Jiaozhi). Therefore, according to rumor, the Vietnamese tried to consolidate this bronze column at that time and made it become a mound with a piece of stone deposited by each of them as they passed by. This column was made from the bronze collected during the systematic destruction of bronze drums belonging to the Đồng Sơn civilization that the French archaeologist Louis Pajot discovered in 1924 in Đồng Sơn (Thanh Hoá) during his archaeological excavations.

Does Ma Yuan’s bronze column really exist or is it just an oral rumor? We are used to finding in Chinese history the act of building, during the victory of territorial conquest, the column to demarcate the border like the Tang generals Hà Lý Trinh, Trương Chu and Mã Tống. The bronze column should surely exist because the last insolent Ming emperor Zhu Youjian did not hesitate to allude to this bronze column of Ma Yuan to humiliate the Vietnamese ambassador Giang Văn Minh in his main verse: Đồng trụ chí kim đài dĩ lục (The bronze column continues to turn green because of the moss that accumulates over the years). But he was annoyed and furious, immediately killing Giang Van Minh because of his replying verse showing greatness of soul and courage: Ðằng giang tự cổ huyết do hồng (the Bạch Đằng River continues to turn red because of the blood of the invaders).

According to The geographical work of the Qing Dynasty (Đại Thanh nhất thống chí ), this column was built at that time in the Phân Mao mountain of the Cổ Sâm cave distant from Khảm Châu about 3 kilometers in the west direction. It is here that we find a kind of perennial grass which orients itself in the North-South directions according to the climate. This is the second Chinese domination lasting from 43 AD until the rebellion of Lý Bôn. The latter seized the auspicious opportunity in the year 544 AD to found the former Lý dynasty in the year 544.

 

Exile (Boat people)

 

exilVersion française
Version vietnamienne

Exile is sometimes a far crueler torment than death for  people with a lively, sensitive character. The novelist Staël is right to say so. Exile is only the last resort contemplated by the Vietnamese when he can no longer live freely to the best of his knowledge, or when he feels frustrated or powerless, like the retired general of the talented novelist Nguyễn Huy Thiệp, in a country wrested from foreign powers after so many years of effort and sacrifice, only to fall into dreary self-colonization.

Exile is not only the beginning of a new life, it’s also the beginning of a new hope. Sometimes, it’s the surest way to escape all threat and suspicion. Such is the case of Duke Nguyễn Hoàng. The latter, who within a few years would emerge victorious from several dazzling battles against the Mạc, became a cause for concern for his brother-in-law Trịnh Kiểm towards the end of 1554. To monopolize power, the latter did not hesitate to eliminate Nguyễn Uông, Nguyễn Hoàng’s brother.

Faced with this malicious intent, Nguyễn Hoàng, worried and distraught, was forced to secretly send an emissary to the illustrious scholar of the time, Nguyễn Bỉnh Khiêm, our Vietnamese Nostradamus, to seek his advice. Arriving at his place of retreat Bạch Vân am, the emissary laid a hundred gold taëls before the scholar and begged him for advice. But the scholar continued to remain impassive. Only towards the end of the interview did he stand up with his cane and head for the garden. Then, gazing admiringly at a decorative miniature artificial mountain made of a dozen tangled pebbles, on which a few ants were still climbing, he began to say:

Hoành sơn nhất đái vạn đại dung thân
Một dãy Hoành Sơn có thể dung thân được ở đó.

The refuge can be found on the side of the Annamite Cordillera.

The emissary told Nguyễn Hoàng what the scholar Nguyễn Bỉnh Khiêm had said. Seized by this brilliant idea, he pretended to be struck by madness and asked his sister, Ngọc Bảo, Trịnh Kiểm‘s favorite, to intervene with the latter so that he could be sent at once as governor of the Thuận Hóa- Quảng Nam province, known as the most unhealthy and dangerous corner, inhabited by barbarians and infested with wild beasts. But it was also here that Mạc troops continued to wage war. Machiavellian Trịnh Kiểm accepted this request without hesitation, for he seized the opportunity not only to liquidate Nguyễn Hoàng through the Mạc, but also to establish his legitimacy against the followers of his deceased father-in-law, general Nguyễn Kim. Thanks to this stratagem, Nguyễn Hoàng managed to save his family and later founded the dynasty of nine Nguyễn lords in the South, enabling one of his descendants by name Nguyễn Ánh (or Gia Long) to begin the long march south and later found the Nguyễn dynasty.

Similarly, Nguyễn Ánh had to spend several years in exile in Bangkok (Thailand) before being able to reclaim the throne. Exile is not always Eldorado, as Vietnamese still believe, but it is sometimes the beginning of a perilous adventure and a never-ending nightmare. More than 200,000 Vietnamese boat people perished in this adventure at the mercy of the East Sea and Thai pirates during the first years after the fall of Saigon (1975). Others who managed to escape alive continued to be kept as prisoners in camps in Thailand, Malaysia or Indonesia during the 90s. Exile is also the beginning of a long banishment, the end of a national upsurge and a lived experience.
hamnghi
Such was the case of King Hàm Nghi. After three years of struggle in the mountainous regions of Quảng Bình, he was captured alive on November 1, 1888 following the betrayal of a Mường Trương Quang Ngọc chief. Despite his capture, he continued to fuel doubts among the colonial authorities, for they found in front of them a young boy aged 18, of average height, so slender in his gait and so cultured above all, which contradicts the fact that according to rumors, Hàm Nghi was a vulgar and coarse character placed on the throne by the regent Tôn Thất Thuyết.   
 
No sign of weakness or fatigue appeared on his face, despite three years of tracking, misery and hunger in these mountainous regions. He continued to remain not only impassive, but also mute about his identity in the face of incessant interrogation by his jailers. Several mandarins were sent to identify whether the young captive in question was indeed King Hàm Nghi or not, but none succeeded in moving the latter except the old scholar Nguyễn Thuận.

On seeing the king continuing to perform this mockery, the latter, with tears in his eyes, prostrated himself before him, dropping his cane. Faced with the sudden appearance of this scholar, the king forgot the role he had played against his jailers, raised the latter up and knelt before him: “I beg you, my master”. At that moment, he realized that he had made a mistake in recognizing the latter, for Nguyễn Thuận had been his tutor when he was still young. He never regretted this gesture, because for him, respect for his master came before any other consideration. Thanks to this recognition, the colonial authorities were sure to capture King Hàm Nghi, enabling them to pacify Vietnam. King Hàm Nghi was deported to Algeria at the age of 18. He never saw Vietnam again. Even his body was not brought back to Vietnam, but buried in Sarlat (Dordogne, France).

The attachment of every Vietnamese to his native land is so deep that it’s impossible for him not to think of returning one day to Vietnam and dying there.

Exile is only a transitory period in one’s life but never an end in itself.

Từ bao giờ có khu 36 phố phường ở Hà Nội?

Từ bao giờ có khu 36 phố phường ở Hà Nội?
Depuis quand il y a le quartier des 36 rues et corporations  à Hanoï?

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Thăng Long được xuất phát từ làng Long Đỗ. Từ thế kỷ  thứ năm, vua Lý Nam Đế đã xây ở  đây « mộc thành» của nước Vạn Xuân. Nhà Đường, sau khi xâm chiếm nước ta lấy nơi nầy làm trị sở trên đất Long Đỗ và đổi tên nó ra Tống Bình.

Lý Công Uẩn dưới sự giúp đở của sư Vạn Hạnh nhận ra tiềm năng của vùng đất nầy vì nó là điểm giao nhau của các trục đường bộ và đường sông trong việc vận chuyễn hàng hóa. Vã lại nó còn  đáp ứng cho việc cân bằng  giữa các yếu tố  nước và đất hay là giữa dòng khí tốt (Rồng xanh) và dòng khí xấu (hổ trắng)   trong phong thủy mà được tướng nhà Đường Cao Biền  du nhập vào nước ta. Tục truyền Cao Biền dùng bùa phép yểm trấn thành Đại La nhưng nhờ thần Bạch Mã  trợ  giúp mà Lý Thái Tổ thành công trong  việc xây thành Thăng Long trên nền móng cũ của  thành Đại La. Đền thờ Bạch Mã vẫn  còn ngày nay ở phố Buồm (Rue des voiles). Vì vậy vào mùa thu 1010, Lý Công Uẩn mới ra quyết định dời đô từ Hoa Lư về vùng đất « Rồng cuộn, hổ ngồi ». Ngài muốn chọn một nơi để phát triển kinh tế  cho vận nước được lâu dài và tính kế lâu dài  cho con cháu được  muôn vạn thế hệ và muôn vật được phồn thịnh và phong phú.

Từ đó, ngài cần lập các công xưởng thủ công để sản xuất các hàng hóa mà triều đình cần dùng và tiêu thụ.  Không những các thợ thụ công giỏi đua nhau đến Thăng Long làm việc mà luôn cả các nông dân ở thôn quê vùng sông Hồng  lúc nhàn rỗi  cũng tham gia sản xuất các sản phẩm hàng thủ công bán cho các con buôn mà những người này họ mang về kinh thành bán lại để kiếm lời. Lúc đầu họ tụ hợp ở các phiên chợ  của bốn chợ lớn tại các cửa  ô kinh thành. Nhưng về sau vì các xưởng sản xuất của triều đình không thể cung ứng đủ nên khiến một số thương nhân dần dần tập trung tại khu phố  ở cửa Đông vì ở đây địa thế của chợ nầy rất thuận lợi cho việc chuyên chở hàng hóa bằng thuyền từ nông thôn ra kinh thành qua sông Hồng, Tô Lịch và các kênh. Phía trước mặt chợ  thời đó là đền Bạch Mã. Còn bên phải là sông Tô Lịch và thưở đó có cái cầu bắc ngang sông hiện nay đó là phố Hàng Đường. Bởi vậy ở thế kỉ 14 mới  có thành ngữ  « Kẻ Chợ » (những người của chợ) để nói đến khu phố tấp nập này. Chính  nơi nầy được gọi về sau là  khu 36 phố phường để bán các sản phẩm  thủ  công mà các làng nghề  xung quanh và ở nông thôn cung cấp. Các cửa hàng đều là những  nhà chòi dùng để làm cơ xưởng hay để buôn bán dọc theo phố (hay đường).

Tựa như các nhà ở đồng quê, các cửa hàng nầy được dựng lên bằng gỗ, tre, mái rơm và tường trét bùn. Nhà nào cũng có chum nước để ở trên mái  khi có hỏa họan  thì kéo đổ xuống mái. Quá sợ hỏa hoạn, người dân lập đền Hỏa Thần (nay nó nằm ở Hàng Điếu) để ngày rằm cầu xin thần lửa đừng gây cháy.  Kẻ Chợ dần dần thoát khỏi sự phụ thuộc vào kinh thành từ thế 17 dưới sự ngự trị của các chúa Trịnh nhờ có một  loạt nghị quyết như giảm thuế, thống nhất hệ thống tiền bạc và xây dựng nhiều công trình đô thị lớn dẫn đến sự phát triển đáng kể. Các thủ công nhà buôn từ các làng nghề đổ xô về cư ngụ lâu dài ở thành phố và các nhà con buôn nước ngoài  thì bắt đầu lập chi nhánh tại kinh thành khiến làm nền kinh tế nó rất sôi động hơn. Nhờ đó mà kinh thành trở nên trung tâm buôn bán lớn nhất của miền bắc Việt Nam.

Các thợ  thủ công và các thương nhân cùng một làng quê gốc tập hợp thành các phương hội rồi cùng nhau  chuyên sản xuất hay  bán ở phường. Để kiếm hàng cần mua thì chỉ cần đến phường mà trước lối cổng vào thì có một tấm bảng ghi rõ chất  lượng và loại hàng được bán.Thời kỳ này chữ phố cũng chưa được dùng. Theo nhà văn Nguyễn Ngọc Tiến thì chữ phố vẫn được dùng với nghĩa là bến sông. Bởi vậy mới có câu « Gác mái ngư ông về viễn phố » (nhớ về bến xa)  trong bài thơ « Chiều hôm nhớ nhà » của bà Huyện Thanh Quan.Theo nhà sử học Pháp Philippe Papin, thì chữ phố được sử dụng vào năm 1851 ở huyện Thọ Xuyên và Vĩnh Thuân nên mới có chức trưởng phố  trong  quyến sách mang tựa đề là  « Lịch sử Hà Nội ». Còn trong sách Đại Nam nhất thống chí thì có chép như sau: Hà Nội là kinh đô xưa, nguyên trước có 36 phố phường …. Còn trong cuốn « Chuyến đi thăm Bắc Kỳ năm Ất Hợi  (1876) của học giả Trương Vĩnh Ký thì ông có kể ra 21 phố gồm có: Hàng Buồm, phố nầy cũng là phố Khách Trú có nhiều tiệm thuốc bắc, nhiều hàng cao lâu, Hàng Quảng Đông (Hàng Ngang hiện nay) nơi nầy cũng toàn  người khách trú ở, Hàng Mã thì gắn liền với nghề sản xuất, buôn bán đồ giấy, đồ vàng mã cúng lễ, ma chay vân vân… Như vậy chữ phố có thể ra đời từ đầu thời vua Tự Đức.

Các thợ kim hoàn xuất phát từ làng Châu Khê thì định cư ở phố Hàng Bạc. Còn thợ tiện gỗ đến từ làng Nhị Kê thì ở phố Tô Tịch vân vân…Họ luôn luôn giữ liên lạc với ngôi làng gốc của họ ở nông thôn trong việc tuyển nhân công, cung ứng nguyên liệu, ghi tên vào gia phả của làng, tham gia mỗi năm và các ngày hội của làng.


Các làng ở nông thôn trở thành các nơi cung cấp không những cho làng phố  đô thị các sản phẩm đạt trình độ kỹ thuật cao mà còn luôn cả nông phẩm cho kinh thành. Có thể nói các làng ở nông thôn và các làng phố ở kinh thành phụ thuộc lẫn nhau. Chính nhờ thế tình thần đoàn kết giữa các làng phố đô thị và các làng ở nông thôn càng chặt chẽ hơn nữa. Mỗi làng phố  đô thị được xây dựng dọc theo phố hay một đoạn của phố và lệ thuộc một hay nhiều làng cùng làm một nghề thủ công. Thời đó đăc điểm của làng phố là ở mỗi đầu của làng phố là có cổng ra vào. Các cổng nầy đều đóng lại lúc về đêm. Mỗi làng phố còn có một  bộ máy hành chánh riêng biệt cũng như có một trưởng phố, một  ngôi đình riêng tư nhầm để thờ các ông tổ của nghề hay là  các thần hoàng của các làng gốc ở nông thôn.  Dưới thời Pháp thuộc, để tránh hỏa hoạn thì chính quyền Pháp mới ra chỉ thị xây dựng lại thành phố qua  các công trình kiến trúc  kiên cố với các  ngôi nhà  hình ống mà  chúng ta được thấy ngày nay ở phố cổ Hà Nội mà họ còn  lấp đi nhiều ao hồ như hồ Hàng Đào, hồ Mã Cảnh, hồ Hàng Chuối, hồ Liên Trì vân vân…  Năm 1894, Pháp lấp đọan đầu sông Tô Lịch để xây chợ Đồng Xuân. Họ lại phá tường thành Hà Nội và các cửa thành. Nay chĩ còn duy nhất Ô Quan Chưởng hay (Ô cửa Đông) còn khúc sông Tô Lịch dưới chân thành cũng bị lấp đi.  Giờ  đây nhiều phố  chỉ còn tên mà thôi như phố Hàng Bè chớ cát bồi đưa sông ra xa nên bè mảng không còn vào được sát chân đê nữa. Như vậy đâu  còn bè mà cũng không còn chợ cái bè trên đê nữa. 

Còn các nhà hình ống nầy mang đậm phong cách phương tây nhất là mặt tiền với ban công, lô gia, hiên nhà vân vân. Còn vật liệu xây dựng thì gồm có xi măng, cốt thép, bê tông, kính vân vân … Tuy nhiên theo sử gia Pháp Philippe Papin thì các nhà ống ở Hànội là ảnh hưởng của cộng đồng người Hoa. Luận chứng nầy  không hẳn là sai nếu có  dịp đến tham quan các nhà cổ  của  người Hoa ở  Hội  An.  Nhưng theo nhà văn Nguyễn Ngọc Tiến thì  dưới thời vua Minh Mạng,  đánh thuế  cửa hàng không  căn cứ  nhà đó  buôn to hay nhỏ  hay chiều sâu mà chỉ  đo mặt tiền.  Mặt tiền rộng đóng thuế  cao, hẹp thì  thuế  ít. Vì vậy mặt tiền rộng hay thường chia ra nhiều cửa hàng. Đôi khi con trai lập gia đình và không có điều kiện mua chỗ buộc cha mẹ phải nhường một phần cửa hàng nên mới có  sự  hình thành nhà ống.  Các nhà ống tuy mặt tiền rất eo hẹp nhưng có  thể có chiều dài lên đến 60 thước. Loại nhà nầy thường có ba phần: phiá trước dùng để buôn bán hay cơ xưởng  còn ở  giữa  hay thường  có  cái sân, nơi có một nhà nhỏ xây vòm cuống giống một cái lò cao 1,8 thước để chứa các đồ  qúi giá  phòng khi cháy chớ nếu không mất trắng tay và phần cuối thì để ở.

Trong quyển sách  được mang tên là « Miêu tả về vương quốc Bắc Kỳ », ông Samuel Baron, một thương gia người Anh có nhắc đến phố cổ qua một số tài liệu hình ảnh và những gì ông  mô tả  thật thú vị. Tuy rằng nhỏ hẹp so với diện tích của Việt Nam, khu phố cổ Hà Nội nó là minh chứng tiêu biểu của  nền văn hóa thương mại và đô thị của người dân Việt qua nhiều thế kỷ. Đây là một kiểu mẫu mà cần thiết phải biết tường tận để hiểu rõ  được cái cấu trúc truyền thống của đô thị trong thế giới làng mạc của người  dân Việt.


Version française

Thăng Long était issue  du village de Long Đỗ. Dès le Vème siècle, le roi  Lý Nam Đế construisit ici la « citadelle en bois » du royaume de Vạn Xuân. Après avoir envahi notre pays, la dynastie des Tang a pris cet endroit comme le quartier général de son armée sur les terres de  Long Đỗ et a changé son nom en Tống Binh. Lý Công Uẩn aidé par le  moine Van Hanh, a  trouvé l’énorme  potentiel de cet endroit  car il était à  l’intersection des routes et des voies fluviales pour faciliter le transport de marchandises. De plus, il a  répondu  également à l’équilibre et l’harmonie  entre les éléments Eau et Terre ou bien  entre le souffle  bienfaisant  (Dragon vert) et le souffle malfaisant (Tigre blanc) dans la géomancie  introduite dans notre pays par le général Tang Gao Pian. La légende racontait  qu’il  se servit des sortilèges pour protéger la citadelle de Đại La, mais grâce à l’aide  apportée par le génie  « métamorphosé en Cheval Blanc », Lý Thái Tổ réussit à édifier  la citadelle de Thăng Long sur les anciennes fondations de la citadelle de Đại La. Le temple dédié au culte du Cheval Blanc  existe encore aujourd’hui  dans la rue des voiles (Phố Buồm). C’était pourquoi à l’automne 1010, Lý Thái Tổ vint de décider le transfert de la capitale, de Hoa Lư à la région où le dragon s’enroulait et le tigre était assis. Il voulait choisir un endroit pour développer l’économie à long terme et prévoir un avenir radieux avec prospérité et abondance pour dix mille  générations futures. 

Il dut créer  dès lors des usines artisanales pour produire les marchandises dont la cour royale avait besoin pour la consommation.  Il y avait non seulement des artisans talentueux  se précipitant à  travailler à Thăng Long, mais aussi des agriculteurs vivant dans les campagnes de la région du fleuve Rouge. Ces derniers,  durant leur temps libre, ont également participé à la production de produits artisanaux destinés à être vendus aux intermédiaires  qui les ont ramenés dans la capitale pour les revendre dans le but de gagner de l’argent. Dans un premier temps, ils s’étaient rassemblés aux quatre grands marchés se trouvant tout près des  portes de la capitale. Mais comme les usines royales ne pouvaient pas approvisionner suffisamment les  produits, ils  s’étaient  progressivement regroupés  dans le quartier de la Porte Est car le terrain d’ici  était très propice au transport fluvial des marchandises  de la campagne vers la capitale en passant par le fleuve Rouge jusqu’à Tô Lich et les canaux.

À cette époque, devant le marché se trouvait le temple du Cheval Blanc (Bạch Mã). Sur sa droite il y avait la rivière Tô Lich et  un pont, le tout devenant aujourd’hui la rue  du sucre (Hàng Đường). C’était  pourquoi au 14ème siècle l’expression « Kẻ Chợ »  (ou les gens du marché) était employé  pour désigner ce quartier animé. C’était cet endroit qui devenait  plus tard  le  quartier de 36 rues et corporations  destiné à vendre tous les produits artisanaux fournis par les villages artisanaux et ruraux  aux alentours.  Les magasins  étaient entièrement  des huttes utilisées comme des ateliers de fabrication  ou des lieux pour faire du commerce tout le long de la rue.

Analogues à des maisons de campagne, ces magasins étaient  construits en bois et en bambou, avec des toits de paille et des murs enduits de boue. Chaque maison possédait  une jarre d’eau sur le toit qui, en cas d’incendie, pouvait  être renversée  sur le toit pour éteindre le feu. Étant effrayés par le feu, les gens ont décidé de construire  un temple  destiné au génie du feu (situé aujourd’hui dans la rue des pipes) pour lui demander de ne pas provoquer d’incendie tout le 15ème  jour du mois lunaire.  Kẻ  Chợ s’’était  progressivement échappé de la dépendance de la capitale depuis le XVIIème siècle sous le règne des seigneurs Trinh grâce à une série de résolutions telles que la réduction des impôts, l’unification du système monétaire et la réalisation de nombreux  projets urbains conduisant à un développement important. Les artisans  commerçants  des villages artisanaux affluèrent vers la capitale pour y vivre de manière permanente et les commerçants étrangers commencèrent à ouvrir aussi des succursales dans la capitale, ce qui rendait  l’économie plus dynamique. Grâce à cela, la capitale était  devenue ainsi  le plus grand centre commercial dans le  nord du Vietnam.

Les artisans et les commerçants d’un même village se regroupaient en corporations et se spécialisaient ensemble dans la production ou la vente dans le quartier. Pour trouver les produits dont vous avez besoin,  il vous suffit de vous rendre au quartier dont le portail d’entrée porte un panneau indiquant clairement la qualité et le type de produits vendus. Durant cette période, le mot rue n’était pas utilisé. Selon l’écrivain Nguyễn Ngoc Tiến, le mot rue était encore employé  pour désigner le quai fluvial. C’est pourquoi il y a la phrase « En déposant la rame, le pêcheur  se dépêche de retourner à la rive lointaine » dans le poème «L’après-midi  teinté de nostalgie» de Mme Huyện Thanh Quan. Selon l’historien français Philippe Papin, le mot « rue » était utilisé en 1851 dans les districts de Thọ Xuyên et Vĩnh Thuận. C’est pour cela que  le poste du chef de la rue est apparu  dans son  livre intitulé « Histoire de Hanoi ».

Dans le livre intitulé  Đai Nam Nhất Thống Chí (Géographie du Viet Nam), il est écrit ainsi: Hanoï était l’ancienne capitale, elle comptait à l’origine 36 rues etc. Dans le livre « Un voyage au Tonkin de  l’année du cochon en bois (1876) » de l’érudit Trương Vĩnh Ký, il a répertorié 21 rues dont: Hàng Buồm (Rue des voiles). Cette rue étant aussi la rue des immigrants chinois  avec de nombreux magasins de médecine traditionnelle et des restaurants chinois , Hàng Quảng Đông  c’était la rue des Cantonnais à l’époque française (rue Hang Ngang d’aujourd’hui), Hàng Mã  (Rue du cuivre à l’époque française) était  associée à la production et au commerce de papiers votifs, des objets de funérailles, etc. Le mot rue pourrait donc être né dès le début du règne du roi Tự Đức.

Les bijoutiers venus du village de Châu Khê s’étaient installés dans la rue des changeurs (Hàng Bạc). Quant aux tourneurs sur bois du village de Nhi Kê, ils habitaient dans la rue Tô Tịch et ainsi de suite… Ils gardaient toujours le contact avec leur village d’origine à la campagne en recrutant des ouvriers, en fournissant du matériel, en inscrivant leurs noms dans la généalogie du village et en participant chaque année aux fêtes villageoises.

Les villages ruraux étaient  devenus ainsi  des lieux qui approvisionnaient non seulement les villages urbains en produits de haute technologie mais aussi en produits agricoles pour la capitale. On peut dire que les villages de la campagne et les villages de la capitale dépendaient les uns des autres. Grâce à  cette interdépendance, l’esprit de solidarité entre les villages urbains et les villages ruraux était encore plus serré. Chaque village urbain était construit le long d’une rue ou d’un tronçon de rue et dépendait d’un ou plusieurs villages exerçant le même métier.

A cette époque, la particularité du village résidait sur le fait qu’à chaque extrémité du village il y avait toujours un portail d’entrée qui était fermé durant la nuit. Chaque village disposait  également d’un appareil administratif distinct ayant un chef de village, une maison communale dédiée  au culte des ancêtres du métier ou  des génies du village dont les gens étaient issus. 

Durant la période coloniale française, afin d’éviter les incendies, le gouvernement français prit la décision de réorganiser la ville au moyen des travaux architecturaux avec des maisons tubulaires que l’on voit aujourd’hui dans la vieille ville de Hanoï, mais il fit disparaître également  de nombreux étangs et lacs comme le lac Hàng Đào, lac Mã Cảnh, lac Hàng Chuối, lac Liên Trì  etc. pour construire les maisons et les bâtiments publics. En 1894, les Français ont asséché la partie supérieure de la rivière Tô Lich pour construire le marché de  Đồng Xuân. Ils ont de nouveau détruit les murs de la citadelle de Hanoi et ses portes. Il ne restait désormais que la porte Quan Chưởng  (porte  de l’Est) et la rivière Tô Lich en contrebas de la citadelle a également été comblée de sable et d’alluvions. À présent, de nombreuses rues n’ont plus que leur nom, comme la rue Hàng Bè (rue des radeaux), car le sable a repoussé la rivière plus loin, de sorte que les radeaux ne peuvent plus s’approcher du pied de la digue. Donc il n’y a plus de radeau. Alors  il n’y a non plus de marché des radeaux sur la digue.

Quant aux maisons tubulaires, on les voit mettre en valeur le style occidental, notamment leur  façade avec balcon, loggia, porche etc. Les matériaux de construction comprennent le ciment, les barres d’armature, le béton, le verre etc. Cependant, selon l’historien français Philippe Papin, les maisons tubulaires de Hanoï sont influencées par la communauté chinoise. Cet argument n’est pas forcément faux si on a l’occasion de visiter les anciennes maisons des Chinois à Hội An. Mais selon l’écrivain Nguyễn Ngoc Tiến, sous le règne du  roi Minh Mang, l’impôt sur les magasins n’était pas basé sur la taille ou la profondeur du magasin, mais uniquement sur la façade. Le propriétaire d’un magasin  ayant une façade relativement large doit payer une taxe plus élevée par rapport à celui possédant une  petite façade. On a intérêt de diviser  la grande façade en plusieurs petites façades donc en plusieurs boutiques. Parfois, un fils  qui se marie et n’a pas les moyens d’acheter un nouveau logement est obligé de demander à ses parents de céder une partie de leur boutique, ce qui donne naissance à la création des maisons tubulaires. Bien que celles-ci aient des façades très étroites, elles peuvent avoir une longueur allant jusqu’à 60 mètres.

Ce type de maison comporte généralement trois parties: le devant avec sa façade est réservé au commerce ou à l’atelier tandis qu’au milieu se trouve généralement  une  petite cour où on édifie  une petite maison avec un dôme  ressemblant à un four de 1,8 mètre de haut pour garder des objets de valeur en cas d’incendie  et le derrière  du magasin est destiné à l’habitation.

Dans son livre intitulé « Une description du royaume de Tonkin », le commerçant anglais Samuel Baron en a parlé avec ses illustrations et ses descriptions intéressantes. 
Malgré sa taille insignifiante par rapport à celle du Vietnam, le vieux quartier de Hanoï témoigne incontestablement de la culture commerciale et urbaine des Vietnamiens au fil de plusieurs siècles. C’est un modèle dont on a besoin pour connaître d’une manière approfondie la structure traditionnelle de la « ville » dans le monde rural des Vietnamiens.

English version

Thăng Long originated from the village of Long Đỗ. As early as the 5th century, King Lý Nam Đế built here the « wooden citadel » of the kingdom of Vạn Xuân. After invading our country, the Tang dynasty took this place as the headquarters of their army on the lands of Long Đỗ and renamed it Tống Binh. Lý Công Uẩn, aided by the monk Van Hanh, discovered the enormous potential of this place because it was at the intersection of roads and waterways, facilitating the transport of goods. Moreover, it also met the balance and harmony between the elements of Water and Earth, or between the beneficial breath (Green Dragon) and the harmful breath (White Tiger) in geomancy introduced to our country by General Tang Gao Pian. Legend has it that he used spells to protect the Đại La citadel, but thanks to the help provided by the spirit « transformed into the White Horse, » Lý Thái Tổ succeeded in building the Thăng Long citadel on the old foundations of the Đại La citadel. The temple dedicated to the worship of the White Horse still exists today on Sail Street (Phố Buồm). That is why, in the autumn of 1010, Lý Thái Tổ decided to transfer the capital from Hoa Lư to the region where the dragon curled and the tiger sat. He wanted to choose a place to develop the economy long-term and foresee a bright future with prosperity and abundance for ten thousand future generations.

He then had to create artisanal factories to produce the goods that the royal court needed for consumption. There were not only talented artisans rushing to work in Thăng Long, but also farmers living in the countryside of the Red River region. The latter, during their free time, also participated in the production of handicrafts intended to be sold to intermediaries who brought them back to the capital to resell in order to make money. At first, they gathered at the four main markets located near the gates of the capital. But since the royal factories could not supply enough products, they gradually regrouped in the East Gate neighborhood because the land there was very suitable for the river transport of goods from the countryside to the capital via the Red River to Tô Lich and the canals.

At that time, in front of the market was the White Horse Temple (Bạch Mã). To its right was the Tô Lich river and a bridge, all of which today is Sugar Street (Hàng Đường). That is why in the 14th century the expression « Kẻ Chợ » (or the market people) was used to designate this lively neighborhood.It was this place that later became the district of 36 streets and guilds, intended to sell all the handcrafted products supplied by the nearby artisanal and rural villages. The shops were entirely huts used as workshops or places for trade along the street.

Similar to country houses, these shops were built of wood and bamboo, with thatched roofs and mud-plastered walls. Each house had a water jar on the roof which, in case of fire, could be overturned onto the roof to extinguish the flames. Being afraid of fire, people decided to build a temple dedicated to the fire spirit (located today on Pipe Street) to ask it not to cause any fires on the 15th day of the lunar month. Kẻ Chợ gradually escaped dependence on the capital since the 17th century under the reign of the Trinh lords thanks to a series of resolutions such as tax reduction, monetary system unification, and the completion of many urban projects leading to significant development. Artisanal merchants from the craft villages flocked to the capital to live there permanently, and foreign traders also began opening branches in the capital, making the economy more dynamic. Thanks to this, the capital had thus become the largest commercial center in northern Vietnam.

Artisans and merchants from the same village would group together into guilds and specialize collectively in production or sales within the neighborhood. To find the products you need, you just have to go to the neighborhood whose entrance gate bears a sign clearly indicating the quality and type of products sold. During this period, the word « street » was not used. According to the writer Nguyễn Ngọc Tiến, the word « street » was still used to refer to the river quay. That is why there is the phrase « Upon laying down the oar, the fisherman hurries back to the distant shore » in the poem « Afternoon tinged with nostalgia » by Mrs. Huyện Thanh Quan. According to the French historian Philippe Papin, the word « street » was used in 1851 in the districts of Thọ Xuyên and Vĩnh Thuận. That is why the position of street chief appeared in his book entitled « History of Hanoi. »

In the book entitled Đai Nam Nhất Thống Chí (Geography of Vietnam), it is written as follows: Hanoi was the ancient capital, originally comprising 36 streets, etc. In the book « A Journey to Tonkin in the Year of the Wooden Pig (1876) » by the scholar Trương Vĩnh Ký, he listed 21 streets including: Hàng Buồm (Sail Street). This street was also the street of Chinese immigrants with many traditional medicine shops and Chinese restaurants. Hàng Quảng Đông was the street of the Cantonese during the French era (today’s Hang Ngang street). Hàng Mã (Copper Street during the French era) was associated with the production and trade of votive papers, funeral objects, etc. The word « street » could therefore have originated at the beginning of King Tự Đức‘s reign.

Jewelers from the village of Châu Khê had settled in the money changers’ street (Hàng Bạc). As for the woodturners from the village of Nhi Kê, they lived on Tô Tịch street, and so on… They always maintained contact with their native village in the countryside by recruiting workers, supplying materials, registering their names in the village genealogy, and participating each year in village festivals.

The rural villages thus became places that supplied not only the urban villages with high-tech products but also agricultural products for the capital. It can be said that the countryside villages and the capital’s villages depended on each other. Thanks to this interdependence, the spirit of solidarity between urban and rural villages was even stronger. Each urban village was built along a street or a section of a street and depended on one or more villages practicing the same trade. At that time, the uniqueness of the village lay in the fact that at each end of the village there was always an entrance gate that was closed at night. Each village also had a distinct administrative body with a village chief, a communal house dedicated to the worship of the ancestors of the trade or the village spirits from which the people originated.

During the French colonial period, to prevent fires, the French government decided to reorganize the city through architectural works with tubular houses that can still be seen today in the old town of Hanoi. However, they also caused the disappearance of many ponds and lakes such as Hang Dao Lake, Ma Canh Lake, Hang Chuoi Lake, Lien Tri Lake, etc., to build houses and public buildings. In 1894, the French drained the upper part of the To Lich River to build the Dong Xuan Market. They again destroyed the walls of the Hanoi citadel and its gates. Only the Quan Chuong Gate (the East Gate) remained, and the To Lich River below the citadel was also filled with sand and sediment. Now, many streets exist only in name, such as Hang Bè Street (Raft Street), because the sand pushed the river further away, so rafts can no longer approach the foot of the embankment. Therefore, there are no more rafts. Consequently, there is no longer a raft market on the embankment.

As for the tube houses, they are seen to highlight the Western style, particularly their façade with balcony, loggia, porch, etc. The construction materials include cement, reinforcing bars, concrete, glass, etc. However, according to the French historian Philippe Papin, the tube houses of Hanoi are influenced by the Chinese community. This argument is not necessarily false if one has the opportunity to visit the old Chinese houses in Hội An. But according to the writer Nguyễn Ngoc Tiến, under the reign of King Minh Mang, the tax on shops was not based on the size or depth of the shop, but only on the façade. The owner of a shop with a relatively wide façade had to pay a higher tax compared to one with a small façade. It was advantageous to divide the large façade into several small façades, thus into several shops. Sometimes, a son who got married and could not afford to buy a new home was forced to ask his parents to give up part of their shop, which led to the creation of tube houses. Although these have very narrow façades, they can be up to 60 meters long.

This type of house generally consists of three parts: the front with its facade is reserved for commerce or the workshop, while in the middle there is usually a small courtyard where a small house with a dome resembling a 1.8-meter-high oven is built to keep valuables safe in case of fire, and the back of the shop is intended for living quarters.

In his book titled « A Description of the Kingdom of Tonkin, » the English merchant Samuel Baron spoke about it with his illustrations and interesting descriptions. Despite its insignificant size compared to that of Vietnam, the old quarter of Hanoi unquestionably bears witness to the commercial and urban culture of the Vietnamese over several centuries. It is a model needed to gain a deep understanding of the traditional structure of the « city » in the rural world of the Vietnamese.

Galerie des photos

VILLAGE_URBAIN

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Bibliographie:

Nguyễn Bá  Chính : Hà Nôi Chỉ Nam. Guide de Hanoï. Nhà xuất  bản Nhã Nam, Hà Nội.
Philippe Papin : Histoire de Hanoï. Editeur Fayard.
Hữu Ngọc: Hà Nội của tôi. Nhà xuất bản Văn Học.
Nguyễn Ngọc Tiến: Làng Làng Phố Phố Hà Nội. Nhà xuất bản hội nhà văn.